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By Dennis J. Kemp

Laterite projects are found in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. As a result severe meteorological situations accompany such projects, often in regions of high seismic activity and political uncertainty. Frequently, socio-economic development supported by political interest is a major driver for development, while environmental protection imposes numerous stresses on the project. This paper will review and examine the many social, environmental, technical and financial issues that a mining and extraction process is subject to during development. The options that must be evaluated will be discussed in the context of sustainable development. Issues of project standards and cultural impact through to long-term issues such as greenhouse gasses and climate change will be assessed in redirecting project environmental norms. Although a rationale for sustainable project can be developed many long- term uncertainties around issues remain. Keywords: sustainable development, communities, social issues, standards, energy, waste management, consultation, agreements

Jan 1, 2004

By I. C. Knight

The current levels of copper smelter by-product acid production are reviewed on a regional basis, together with the possible changes in the future. There will be increasing pressure for all smelters to achieve a sulphur capture level of at least 95% by the end of the decade.

Jan 1, 1996

By Qiang Yu

This paper reports on a research project supported by NSF, which aims at developing a multi-scale methodology for systematic microstructure prediction in thermo-mechanical processing of metals. This methodology is based on combining mesoscopic microstructure models with macroscopic process formulations and involves the following three main steps: (I) based on the given global processing conditions, the gross deformation patternof the entire workpiece is modeled using a continuum-based algorithm, (2) the resulting parameters are then extracted from the continuum-based simulation, post-processed and passed on to the mesoscopic numerical module, and (3) the microstructural changes are finally modeled at the mesoscopic scale. This approach is expected to overcome the disadvantages of current microstructure prediction practice employing empirical relationships between microstructural features and processing parameters. Keywords: Thermo-mechanical processing, Microstructure, Grain growth; Recrystallization; Mesoscopic models; Finite Element Method

Jan 1, 2003

By Joel A. Huffinan

"This presentation is being given to better inform the audience of the dependability of precious metal analysis by fire assay. A brief explanation, however, of standard fire assay exploration procedures will be given. An overview of other types of analyses by fire assay will be discussed as well, and the operation of a modern day assay laboratory.IntroductionThe use of lead oxide for the fire assay process dates back to the finds in Troy II and the Cappadocian Tablets about 3,000 B.C. Some advances have been made in the basic procedures due to instrumentation and electronics, but the fusion and cupellation procedures used in fire assay remain much the same as during this period.In 1600 AD. Agricola was the first to take a scientific approach to fire assay recording methods and procedures used (Hillerbrand and Allen, 1905) [1]. Since this period, much of the recognized research into the analysis of ores and metals was carried out in the late 1800's and early 1900's prior to World War II, and again after the deregulation of precious metals. The renewed interest in precious metals mining and metallurgy are due much to advances in precious metals heap leaching in late 1970's."

Jan 1, 1999

By Jose Luis Lopez Mendez

In May 1992, MEXICANA DE CANANEA, S.A. DE C.V. finalized the life of its Reverberatory Furnace which lasted 16 years. This created the need to prepare the Smelter for the next campaign.

Jan 1, 1994

By Mitsuru Tanahashi

In order to develop an effective process for the production of from metallurgical-grade one (MG-Si), the oxidation removal of boron from molten MG-Si was investigated at a solar-grade silicon (SOG-Si) 1773K by the following two CaO-saturated CaO-CaF2 flux treatment processes. I) Boron removal by flux addition onto the molten M6-8 followed by oxygen gas injection into the melt (Two-stage connecting process). II) Boron removal by simultaneous injection of flux powders and oxygen gas into the molten MG-Si (Simultaneous injection process). These processes can establish the special condition of both high basicity of the flux and the high oxygen partial pressure at the boron removal reaction sites. Through these processes, especially by the simultaneous injection Process using a flux powder injection equipment, the boron content in MG-Si can be efficiently reduced. The obtained results clarified that both processes should be conducted for a time period as short as possible by using as much flux as possible. By repeating the simultaneous injection process for 60 s three times under the optimum operating conditions determined in the present study, the boron content in MG-Si can be reduced from 14 to 4.7 mass ppm.

Jan 1, 2003

By Toru H. Okabe

As part of a systematic study on the thermodynamic properties of complex nitrides, phase equilibria of the system Li-M-N (M Mg, AI, Ga) at 900 K were investigated. An attempt to determine the thermodynamic properties of complex nitrides was made by using the galvanic cell method, which utilizes LiMgN as an electrolyte under nitrogen atmosphere. The electromotive force (Emf) of the cell at temperatures between 800 and 1100 K was measured. While the Emf of the cell at 900 K was measured to be 0.137 V, data discrepancies of ±0.03 V were found. It was difficult to determine temperature dependence of the Emf. The Gibbs energy change for the reaction, 113 Li3N (s) + 1/3 Mg3N2 (s) = LiMgN (s), at 900 K was determined to be !'J.Go, (LiMgN) = -13.2 (±2.9) kJ/mol. Using thermodynamic information on the binary nitride from literature, the standard Gibbs energy of LiMgN was derived to be !'J.Go f (LiMgN)= - 121 kJ at 900 K. The thermodynamic stability range of nitride was discussed by constructing isothermal chemical potential diagrams that provide a better understanding of the stability region of the LiMgN phase. The diagram was found to be in good agreement with the isothermal phase diagram determined by the alloy equilibration method. Although the obtained data includes large uncertainties, the results provide a better understanding of the thermodynamic stability of nitrides. The potential application of this complex nitride to nitrogen chemical sensors or a medium for controlling nitrogen potential is also shown.

Jan 1, 2003

By Toru H. Okabe

As part of a systematic study on the thermodynamic properties of complex nitrides, phase equilibria of the system Li-M-N (M Mg, AI, Ga) at 900 K were investigated. An attempt to determine the thermodynamic properties of complex nitrides was made by using the galvanic cell method, which utilizes LiMgN as an electrolyte under nitrogen atmosphere. The electromotive force (Emf) of ilie cell at temperatures between 800 and 1100 K was measured. Whilc the Emf of the cell at 900 K was measured to be 0.137 V, data discrepancies of ±0.03V were found. It was difficult to determine temperature dependence of ilie Emf. The Gibbs energy change for the reaction, 113 LbN (s) + 1/3 Mg3N2 (s) = LiMgN (s), at 900 K was determined to be tJ.Gor (LiMgN) -13.2 (±2.9) kJ/mol. Using thermodynamic information on ilie binary nitride from literature, the standard Gibbs energy of LiMgN was derived to be AGO f (LiMgN)= - 121 kJ at 900 K. The thermodynamic stability range of nitride was discussed by constructing isothermal chemical potential diagrams that provide a better understanding of ilie stability region of the LiMgN phase. The diagram was found to be in good agreement with the isoiliermal phase diagram determined by ilie alloy equilibration meiliod. Although the obtained data includes large uncertainties, the results provide a better understanding of the iliermodynamic stability of nitrides. The potential application of this complex nitride to nitrogen chemical sensors or a medium for controlling nitrogen potential is also shown.

Jan 1, 2003

By Toshiro Kuji, Masakazu Fujita, Tetsuji Saito

"The magnetic properties of the magnetic materials were deeply dependent on the microstructures. In this study, the novel technique to produce the desired microstructures in a controlled manner was proposed. The technique consisted of the production of the amorphous alloys and the control of the crystallization process. The technique was applied to improve the magnetic properties of Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets. The microstructural control of the magnets exhibited the excellently high energy-products of higher than 430 kJm-1. The relationship between the magnetic properties and the microstructures of the Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets was discussed.IntroductionThe intrinsic properties of the materials are basically determined by the properties of the constituent elements or the compounds. However, it is often noticed the difference between the observed properties and the theoretical values expected from the intrinsic properties of the materials. This indicates that the observed properties of the materials are determined not only by the properties of the constituent elements. In other words, the observed properties of the materials are also strongly dependent on the morphology of materials. This means that the microstructural control may creates a great improvement of the properties of materials.In Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets, the superiority arises from the uniaxial intermetallic Nd2Fe14B compound which has a large saturation magnetization and a high anisotropy field [1,2]. The magnetic properties of the Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets are dependent on the microstructure, that is, the size, shape and degree of the crystallographic alignment of the Nd2Fe14B phase. Currently, the Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets have been produced by either sintering or melt-spinning [3,4]. In the sintered magnets, alignment of the Nd2Fe14B phase is achieved by the prior green compaction of the crushed ingot powders in an applied magnetic field [3]. In the melt-spinning approach, alignment of the Nd2Fe14B phase is achieved by hot deformation [5]. Amorphous melt-spun ribbons are comminuted and then are consolidated into bulk form by hot pressing before hot deformation. As-hot-pressed magnets have randomly oriented Nd2Fe1~ grains [6]. Subsequent die upsetting of as-hot-pressed magnets gives rise to the crystallographic alignment of the Nd2Fe14B phase."

Jan 1, 1998

By Leon E. Laforest

An early commitment by Kidd Creek Mines Ltd. (formerly Texasgulf Canada) to follow a stringent environmental control programme from the initial stages of design and development of its metallurgical facilities in Timmins, Ontario, has resulted in the on-going attainment of extremely low levels of industrial waste emissions. This paper outlines the monitoring programme initiated and maintained by the company's environmental control section. Comparative results of environmental sampling for the periods before and after the copper smelter start-up are highlighted.

Jan 1, 1983

By Yan Beygelzimer, Alexander Spuskanyuk, Victor Varyukhin

"The main idea of the report is that the yield surface can be presented as thick, ""foamed surface"" with dimensionality exceeding two. By other words, perhaps, the yield surface is fractal, i.e. it belongs to the class of geometric objects with fractional dimensionality. Apparently, fractal structure of the yield surface is determined by the fractal structure of natural materials. ""Cloud of internal stresses"" term is introduced to describe the stress distribution in representative volume element. Its plastic flow is determined by the interaction of this cloud with the thick yield surface. Thick yield surface and internal stress cloud concepts allow to determine an additional correlation between micro mechanical models of polycrystals and phenomenological theory of plasticity.1. IntroductionClassical plastic flow models are not satisfying the modem requirements. There are two main directions in their development. The first, mathematical, is connected with the development of the general theory of rheological relationships; the second, physical, is connected with the development of the representative volume element (RVE) models which are based on specific ideas about deformation mechanisms. Within the framework of the first direction, the macroscopic experimental data is formalized; the second approach deals with the generalization of physical research results for the different scale levels that are involved in plastic deformation.These approaches have advantages and disadvantages. In phenomenological theories, the advantages are the mathematical simplicity and laconic formulation of constitutive relations, which allows using them in practical calculations. However, the mathematical models of this class can not be considered as general, they are useful only for the description of limited range of deforming processes. On the other hand, physical theories that are based on the description of real plastic deformation mechanisms are very explanatory and predictive, but they lack mathematical simplicity. The above circumstances lead us to the necessity of compromise that can be found in determining the constitutive relations for RVE, which structure and parameters would bear the information about rnicrolevel and mesolevel phenomena. In this synthesis direction, the fundamental role belongs to [1,2], etc."

Jan 1, 2001

By Lionel Ryan

In 1996, the Dominican Republic operation of Falconbridge (Falcondo) developed a 5-year Process Control Plan in conjunction with the corporate Process Control group located in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. This plan was further refined into an analysis of the areas of the highest potential economic return for the company with the reduction shaft furnace operation being the most promising. Historically, the reduction plant, which comprises 12 shaft furnaces, has been the bottleneck of ferronickel production. Since 1996 there has been a history of control development, and the current status is that all 12 furnaces are using advanced model-based multi- variable predictive control. The combination of advanced process control (APC), improved control system performance and improved process information management has resulted in an increased throughput of 6% per shaft furnace and a reduction in operating costs of 4.5 US cent/lb of Ni. This paper reviews some of the major milestones that have been achieved in this development Keywords: Advanced Process Control; Model Based Predictive Control; Connoisseur, Reduction Shatt Furnace; Nickel Laterite Ore; Ferronickel; MonitorMV

Jan 1, 2004

By G. S. Hanumanth

Sedimentation of particles during the liquid metal processing of particulate metal-matrix composites can affect the homogeneity, and thereby the properties, of the cast product. A novel electrical probe has been developed to measure the in-situ volume fraction of ceramic particles in molten metal baths. Using this probe, sedimentation rates for 90 pm silicon carbide particles dispersed in molten aluminum A356 alloy were measured over a wide range of particle volume fraction, 0.05 to 0.3. The sedimentation rate was found to depend strongly on particle volume fraction; the time to clarify a 0.15 m depth increased from approximately 60 to 500 seconds as the volume fraction increased from 0.05 to 0.3. Measured sedimentation rates agree well with the predictions of a sedimentation model based on one-dimensional, two-phase flow theory in which the inter-phase drag function is derived from the momentum equation, utilizing the Richardson-Zaki Equation for sedimentation in aqueous systems. The implications for solidification are discussed.

Jan 1, 1993

By J. C. DeSantis

Thin, highly reflective rhodium films with metal compositions greater than 98% (elemental -weight percentage) have been deposited by chemical vapor deposition using Rh(allyl)3 (ally1 = q3-C3H5) in the presence of a hydrogen plasma. Uniform, crystalline films that adhere well to several types of substrates result from depositions at temperatures as low as 150°C. Depositions using H2 (no plasma), or an argon plasma yields material that is amorphous, contains a significant amount (>14%) of residual carbon, and has a dramatically slower growth rate. The composition of these materials does not vary significantly from that of the materials obtained from the in vacuo thermal deposition with Rh(allyl)3.

Jan 1, 1992

By Klaus Bauckhage

Phase-Doppler-anemometry (PDA)-measurements have to be taken from representative measuring positions from inside the spray cone, helping - with the support of simulated data of improved process models - to describe the multiphase flow situations within the spray cone - and accordingly to that - the heat transfer conditions for the rapid cooling and (partly) solidifying melt droplets before their impact onto the substratddeposit. Simulations and PDA-measurements thus give the base to confirm the hypothesis of the existence of a semisolid mixed-layer and it's influence on the resulting material structure during compaction. The dispersed particles in the spray cone exhibit a cooling and solidification process within a split of a second, which leads - as far as the particles solidify - to a dendritic structure with very short dendritic arm spacings. This causes within the particles extremely short distances for the following equalizing diffision processes taking place on a high temperature level (between liquidus and solidus) in the semisolid mixed-layer of the deposit and explaining the short residence times within this zone of only seconds up to a few minutes. This and the fact that the globular structure of the mushy zone (in the semisolid mixed-layer) leads to an unidirectional crystallization process over very short distances also explains the chemical and morphological ,homogeneity of the sprayed material. The dynamics of these process steps, the very special buffer function of the mixing layer during parameter variations as well as the controlled cooling process of the preform in order to avoid hot cracks influence the quality of the material. Due to the necessity of measuring and controlling the particle bound mass-, momentum- and enthalpy- fluxes to the deposit the PDA-technique has been adapted and modified in order to receive in-line and (in the future) also on-line data from the dynamics of the multiphase flow conditions within the spray chamber.

Jan 1, 1999

By Yuanyuan Wang, Hong Li, Xueting Liu, Hao Bai, Kang Zhou

"Phase change materials are widely used in efficient utilization of energy and new energy technology. Especially, more attention has been paid to composite phase material, which is applied on architectural energy-saving and efficient working fluid. In this paper, stearic acid-silicon dioxide composite material was prepared by sol-gel process from tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and stearic acid (SA). The material was investigated by Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The FE-SEM results show that 3D-grids of silicon dioxide were formed clearly and SA was encapsulated in the silicon dioxide shell. The FT-IR results show that there were no chemical reactions between silicon dioxide and SA, which is the chemical property of the composite material, is stable. The DSC results show that the composite phase change material has favorable heat capacity. This material is expected to be used to make a cooling working fluid.1. IntroductionEnergy thermal storage becomes increasingly prominent issue in recent years, because thermal storage has been used in many aspects, for example, it can be added into building materials to improve heat conditioning. Another potential application of thermal storage materials is that the intermittent waste heat can be collected and recycled effectively by using the thermal storage facility. Thus, energy thermal storage plays a significant role in conserving available energy and improving its utilization [1]. Energy thermal storage includes sensible heat storage and latent heat storage. The latent heat storage has great heat density with a constant temperature during the phase change process [2-5]. Large quantities of latent heat storage will be absorbed and released when phase change takes place. Based on the former researches, some phase change material (PCM), such as fatty acid and paraffin waxes, has been proved to have high latent heat storage capacity and appropriate thermal properties [5-6]. However, using the PCM in energy storage systems directly is restricted, e.g. some properties of organic PCM, like form-stability and thermal conductivity, are not good enough to use. Meanwhile, almost all the inorganic PCMs are corrosive and most materials may cause sub cooling and segregation [7-9].The other problem is that the leakage when the temperature reaches the phase change point. Therefore, encapsulated composite phase change material (CPCM) emerged in order to solve the problem of leaking out, minimize the sub cooling and prevent phase segregation. [10-13] However, the easy flammability of fatty acid also has hindered the development of PCM. Accordingly, it has been found out that silicon compounds are environmentally friendly promising substitutes for halogen-containing flame retardants. Especially, silsesquioxanes are excellent in the flame retardancy. So CPCM can be encapsulated with SiO2 acting supporting material."

Jan 1, 2014

By Carl C. Nesbitt

A study was conducted to investigate the claims of early observers who noted an increase in the rate of gold dissolution when chlorine was chemically produced in the leach vessel compared to sparging with chlorine gas. This "nascent" chlorine was presumed to be an active intermediate in the production of chlorine (C1,l from chloride ions. The study used UV light to produce an activated chlorine atom intended to recreate the observed increase in the gold dissolution rate. Although no change in the kinetic rate was observed, the reaction mechanism by which chlorine reacts with particulate gold was instead determined. Various concentrations of multivalent cationic chloride salts were added to the leach solution to demonstrate that the increased dissolution rate was due to the increased concentration of the chloride ion and ionic strength of the solution.

Jan 1, 1992

By Hye-Sung Kim, Dong-Wha Kum, Gyeungho Kim

"Mechanical alloying is an effective way to finely distribute inert dispersoids in AI-TM (TM is a transition metal element) systems. It is considered that high melting point aluminides are formed by precipitation from the supersaturated aluminum matrix. The analysis is based on the fact that much higher content of TM than the solubility limit can be dissolved in alpha aluminum during the high energy ball milling. Nonetheless, the role of undissolved TM particles affecting the formation of aluminides is not suitably considered. In this paper, authors present experimental observation on the formation of Ab3Ti particles from mechanically alloyed AI-Ti alloys in the hyper-peritectic region. This study showed that, in the mechanically alloyed AI-20wt%Ti specimen, intermediate phase of cubic Ab3Ti and tetragonal AIz4Tis formed at 300 - 400°C and 400 - 500°C, respectively, before the MA-state reaches to the global equilibrium at higher temperatures. The formation behavior of Lh- Ab3Ti is interpreted by interdiffusion of Al and Ti in solid state based on the fact that large amount of nano-sized Ti particles exist in the milled powder. Present analysis indicated undissolved Ti particles of nanosize should have played an important role initiating the formation of Ab3Ti phase during annealing.IntroductionInterest in the hyper-peritectic AI-Ti alloys is based on industrial demand for high-modulus and high-temperature aluminum alloys. Earlier works on hyper-peritectic AI-Ti alloys with 4 to 12wt%Ti show that these alloys are strong at ambient temperature and maintain high strength above 300°C when titanium-trialuminide (e.g., Ab3Ti) is finely distributed in the aluminum matrix [1,2]. High melting point and high stiffness with low density of AbTi make the AI-Ti alloys strong with greater thermal stability while keeping weight savings as much as possible. Titanium in aluminum shares other merits of transition metal additions because Ti solubility in Al is low (i.e., 1.l5wt%Ti at 665°C and virtually zero below 400°C), and fine dispersion of Ab3Ti particles is readily accomplished and resists grain coarsening effectively."

Jan 1, 1996

By H. K. Lin

Pyrite oxidation in chloride solutions was investigated with cyclic voltammetry, ac impedance and potential step techniques. The pyrite oxidation in quiescent electrolytes is irreversible and controlled by diffusion. Depression of the semi-circle in the complex plane plot has been explained mathematically based on the concept of the equivalent circuit. When the semi-circle is depressed, the mathematical formula indicates that the reaction resistance should be obtained from the intersection of the semi-circle with Z-axis instead of the semi- circle diameter. The peak charging current densities at 1.10 and 0.90 V vs. SHE obtained from the equivalent circuit coupled with the ac impedance measurements match the peak current densities obtained with the potential step measurements.

Jan 1, 1997

By Ch. -A. Gandin, M. Rappaz

"The grain selection mechanism which occurs during the growth of columnar dendritic structures is routinely used in the investment casting industry to produce directionally solidified (DS) and single crystal turbine blades. However, the evolution of the grain density with increasing distance from the chill has rarely been correlated with the evolution of the grain texture. This contribution presents a three-dimensional (3-D) stochastic modeling approach which permits the computation of grain maps, pole figures and grain density evolutions in DS superalloys. These predictions are compared with measurements resulting from an automatic indexing technique of Electron Back-Scattered diffraction Patterns. This 3-D stochastic model, which applies to uniform temperature situations, has to be extended to the dendritic growth in a thermal gradient. As a preliminary step, a 2-D Cellular Automaton (CA) has been coupled recently to Finite Element (FE) heat flow computations in order to predict the grain structures in complex shape investment cast part. The application of this CAFE model to the investment casting of a turbine blade is presented. Considering these results, the extension of the CAFE algorithm to three dimensions is discussed.INTRODUCTIONThe selection of columnar grains during the directional solidification of alloys plays a key role during the investment casting of directionally solidified (DS) and single crystal (SC) components for aerospace applications [I]. This selection mechanism, leading to a competition of the dendritic network propagation at grain boundaries, has been the subject of many investigations. In particular, the study of Walton and Chalmers [2] is remarkable since it provides a link between the evolutions of the density and of the texture of columnar grains with increasing distance from the mold wall. Since this original work of Walton and Chalmers, two new tools have become available, which enable one to revisit the problem of grain selection in much greater depth. The first one is a fully automatic indexing technique of Electron Back-Scattered diffraction Patterns (EBSPs) [3-6] which directly gives the crystallographic orientation of the solid at any location of the specimen. Pole figures, orientation distributions, misorientations between grains can be visualized very easily with this technique. This information can be directly compared with the results of a second tool: a three-dimensional (3-D) stochastic model (SM) describing the nucleation and growth of grains in a uniform temperature field [6-9]. In order to extend this model to non-uniform temperature situations, a preliminary 2-D model has been developed [10]. It is based on a Cellular Automaton (CA) algorithm coupled with Finite Element (FE) heat flow computations. Since the details of both the automatic indexing technique of EBSPs and the simulation tools have already been published [3-10], only a brief summary is given here."

Jan 1, 1994