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By G N. Phillips

Global annual gold production has been remarkably constant over the last decade at ~2500 t/a3. The major producers today are China (annual production over 350 t and rising), Australia (250 t), USA (240 t), Russia (200 t) and South Africa (190 t and falling); these figures are representative of recent years but approximate. Demand from jewellery, investment, industrial and dental uses has been in excess of mine production for the last decade, by approximately 1000 t/a.Ongoing exploration is the life-blood for gold mining, and more so than for many other metals. Explorers consider sovereign risk, security, labour costs, commercial terms, land availability and inherent geologic prospectivity to determine where to focus their activities. Exploration success over the last decade has been shared by established major producers like Australia, Canada and USA, several countries in West Africa, and many parts of the Pacific margin. Although gold-only deposits have dominated world gold production historically, the gold-plus types, especially copper-gold, are becoming more important.Australia experienced a major period of exploration success from 1979 that has led to annual gold production rising from 17 t in 1979 to 250 - 300 t/a recently. Today, Australia has economic demonstrated resources of over 9000 t Au, which has risen progressively from 220 t in 1979. The majority of production has come from gold-only deposits in the Yilgarn craton in the southern half of Western Australia, but there are a few large Proterozoic deposits in central Australia including Olympic Dam, Telfer and Starra, which are mostly gold-plus types with copper and gold. Large goldfields in the younger host rocks of eastern Australia include the gold-only deposits of Victoria and North Queensland, and gold-plus deposits of New South Wales.CITATION:Phillips, G N, 2013. Australian and global setting for gold in 2013, in Proceedings World Gold 2013 , pp 15-22 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 26, 2013

By Haydn H. Murray

Kaolins and bentonites of economic importance in Australia and New Zealand are described. Clays that are used for structural clay products are not discussed. Residual, hydrothermal, and sedimentary kaolins are utilized including clays associated with coal measures. Bentonites are sedimentary and residual. Very little kaolin and no bentonite is exported presently, but this will change in the near future as transportation costs continue to escalate. Many areas of Australia, in particular, where kaolins are known to occur have not been investigated to determine the quality and quantity of the deposit.

Jan 1, 1982

Byproduct coking is practised in three of the major Australian ironmaking centres, the Newcastle and Whyalla works of the Broken Hill Proprietary Co. Ltd. and the Port Kembla works of Australian Iron & Steel Pty. Ltd. Coking first commenced at Newcastle in 1915 and at Port Kembla in 1938. The installations established at these centres include coal cleaning facilities and com- plete byproduct streams. The Whyalla plant, because of its location is somewhat less extensive, having no coal cleaning plant and a comparatively restricted byproduct section. As new batteries have been built every opportunity has been taken to incorporate modern design features and improved operat- ing techniques. This has included the provision of equipment to reduce atmospheric and water pollution. A marked reduction of markets for byproducts has had serious repercussions on the profitability of this section of the Industry.

Jan 1, 1972

By Richard A. Hawkins

O the American coal man, Australian coal mining most appear to have little, if any, influence on American coal-mining practice and to bear little relation to it. Actually, the relationship has been close, for Australian operators have carefully studied American practice by reading American technical publications, by consulting American engineers, and by visits to Ameriean operations. They have leaned heavily on America for their supply of mechanization equipment and many American mining-machinery manufacturers are active in that country, supplying its needs and furnishing technical assistance. Australia's influence on American coal mining has been obscure and probably negligible. However, it seems reasonable to assume that this influence will increase. The wartime development of air transportation will inevitably bring these two countries into much more intimate contact than existed in recent years. American servicemen. many of them former miners and coal-mining technicians, have visited Australian operation, while stationed in that country, have talked with operators and men over there, and undoubt-

Jan 1, 1945

By A. Swanson

The Australian coal industry has been subdued in recent years and only a few new plants have been constructed, but the drive for greater efficiency has seen continued technological developments. The paper lists the new plants and major upgrades, plus summarizes technical developments in the areas of dense medium processing, fine coal treatment, froth flotation, dewatering and on-line analysers.

Jan 1, 2001

By Tellis D. A

An outline is given of the general position of earthsciences information in Australia, the background to development of the Australian Earth Sciences Information System (AESIS) and the role of the Australian Mineral Foundation in developing and co-ordinating the projeot in co-operation with the CSIRO, BMR, National Library of Australia, AGIA, and many companies.Details 'of the system, method and anticipated rate of input (especially of unpublished material at which the System particularly aims), mode of dissemination, and use of the data base are discussed. Information on theAustralian Thesaurus of Earth Sciences and Related Terms and brief details of some 30 earth sciences information collections in Australia is given.

Jan 1, 1977

By Richmond AJ, Allan J

The use of long-hole in-seam drilling techniques for seam gas drainage ahead of mining was introduced to the Australian coal industry by ACIRL in mid-1981. ACIRL's research program has involved the development and demonstration of drilling and borehole survey technology in addition to evaluating the gas drainage potential of long-hole in- seam boreholes. This paper presents the results of the long-hole drilling carried out to date in the Illawarra District of the New South Wales coal fields. Drilling experience in relation to both vertical and horizontal directional control of the drill string, drill performance and borehole survey techniques are discussed. In addition, results of gas drainage effected by the long boreholes are presented. Future potential and requirements for further development of this technology are Reviewed.

Jan 1, 1982

At its Port Kembla Plant, Australian Fertilizers Ltd. manufactures Superphosphate and other Phosphatic Fertilizers.Phosphate Rock is received from Nauru and Ocean Island. It contains water insoluble tri-calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4), to an average of about 86%.It is crushed to pass a 20-mesh x 26-gauge woven wire screen, and is then treated with Sulphuric Acid to give the product Superphosphate with a water solubie prosphate content of 20.5%, estimated as P205. Sulphuric Acid is made by the chamber process. Three sets of chambers are installed, on,e five-chamber set of timber frame work construction and the other two of more recent date, each with four chambers of steel frame work construction. A fourth chamber set is now being built.Sulphuric Acid is delivered for use. at about 70% H2S04, the strength depending upon the rock used.Mixing - The crushed rock and sulphuric acid are mixed in weighed and measured proportions respectiyely in one-ton batches in revolving cast fron pans, mechanically stirred. The mixture, while still slurry, is run into a closed horizontal concrete cylinder (den) where, with the completion of the chemical reaction, it rapidly sets as Superphosphate.Approximately fifty batches are required to fill a den. When full, the den is opened ana the mass cut out by a revolving cutter. The product is elevated and conveyed to any required position in the Superphosphate storage shed, where it dries and matures.Despatch - As required, the Superphosphate is excavated by a two ton grab and conveyed from the matured "dump" to bagging units where it is disintegrated, screened and bagged at twelve bags to the ton. The filled !Jags are closed by machine and delivered to railway trucks immediately.Mixed Fertilizers - Sulphate of Ammonia, Sulphate and Muriate, of Potash, and Blood and Bone are mixed with Superphosphate and thoroughly incorporated to give different mixtures to meet special plant requirements.

Jan 1, 1938

Gold has been known and mined in Australia for over 150 years. It occurs and is mined in all States and the Northern Territory. In the past 30 years approximately 8300 t of gold has been mined and gold exports have contributed over $106 billion to the Australian economy. In the first three quarters of the Australian financial year 2006 - 07 (ending 30 June 2007) gold exports were valued at $7.3 billion, which was 13 per cent of the value of all minerals exported and five per cent of AustraliaÆs total goods and services exports over the period. Clearly gold has been and remains a very important component of the Australian economy.

Jan 1, 2007

Unnamed early prospectors panned gold from creeks drain- ing the Great Dividing Range in the early part of 1851. The first publicised discovery was credited to Edward Hargraves near Bathurst in New South Wales later in 1851 and during the ensu- ing gold rush, prospectors rapidly made discoveries elsewhere in New South Wales and later across the border in Victoria. Reference to the attached graphs of gold production indicates that for much of the first 100 years, gold production came from the easily worked and readily discovered shallow alluvial deposits, many of which were located in the creeks draining mountainous regions of Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland (Fig. 1 and 2). As these deposits were exhausted, prospectors turned their attention to outcrop lode deposits which led to the development of underground mining techniques and a significant boost in over- all gold production. With the discovery of the rich Golden Mile lodes in Kalgoorlie in 1893, gold production increased signifi- cantly and peaked around the turn of the century. At that time, the enormous potential of the great Witwatersrand deposits in South Africa had only just been appreciated and for a few years, Australia led the world in gold production (1855-1863 and again in 1903). Underground mining continued in the Eastern Goldfields area of Western Australia, the Bendigo-Ballarat region of Victoria and in northeast Queensland. Very few of these operations continued beyond the Second World War, except the larger producers in the Kalgoorlie region where recovered grade had dropped to about 6 g/t Au. By the early 1970s with the gold price fixed at US$35 per ounce, most of the operations were shut down as labour costs escalated, with only the low cost bulk mining operation at Mt. Charlotte and the high grade reefs at Norseman continuing in Production.

Jan 1, 1988

By Somerville M, Muray A, Bocking M

Australia has an extremely large total hot dry rock (HDR) resource above a depth of 5 km, equivalent to 7500 times its present annual energy consumption, of which 80 per cent underlies the Great Artesian Basin. The resources most likely to be exploited first are those residing in homogeneous granitic bodies beneath sedimentary basins containing insulating rocks such as shales and coal measures. In the Sydney Basin south of Muswellbrook, an area of high geothermal gradient corresponds to a gravity low thought to be a buried granite body at a temperature of possibly 250¦C. This locality is suspected to have the ideal geological characteristics for Australia's first hot rock test facility. Australia's high HDR potential is possibly unique in the world, in that the potential sites satisfy four independent, geological conditions, each considered as favourable for the creation of a resource, and for the ease of extracting that resource. They are: ò Higher crustal heat generating capacity than that of normal continental crust. ò Much of the Australian continent is covered by sedimentary basins which contain a high proportion of shales and coal measures that have low thermal conductivities, thus providing an insulating blanket for the heat being generated beneath. ò The sedimentary basins are in many places underlain by large untectonised granitic bodies that are not only a major contributor to heat generation, but also ideally suited to the establishment of HDR reservoirs. ò The crustal shortening stress field that is found in the majority of the Australian continental crust results in a vertical minimum principal stress orientation which should result in the development of favourably oriented horizontal stimulation cells necessary for maximising an HDR resource.

Jan 1, 1995

By James Vaughan

Australia is a major miner of ore that requires hydrometallurgical processing. According to the 2016 US Geological Survey Minerals Commodities Summaries, the country is 1st for aluminium (bauxite) and lithium, 2nd for gold, zinc and cobalt, 4th for nickel and silver, and 6th for copper mining, not to mention its wealth in coal and iron ore. In this paper, examples of recent Australian hydrometallurgical activities are summarised. Then, selected research projects from the University of Queensland hydrometallurgy research group are profiled. The projects profiled are related to fundamental aspects of processing bauxite with organics and reactive silica as well as the development of a synergistic hydro- and pyrometallurgical process for copper. The process context and motivation for the research is introduced, key results are highlighted with the associated relevant references.

By K Devencorn

The development of robust, economical transport infrastructure has been identified as a key driver to sovereign economic growth. Notwithstanding the value of undeveloped mineral resources, unless they can be brought to market they are of little value. Within a global context, the continent of Africa probably faces one of the most significant transport driven economic development programs as countries strive to unlock their much sought after resources.The UN’s Africa Review Report on Transport (United Nations Economic and Social Council, 2009) provides an excellent context for the issue facing African countries and the potential for investment in transport to solve many of the intrinsic problems they are confronted with. With little exception, economic development in Africa is very likely to be driven ‘off the back’ of transport development – and more specifically from heavy-haul rail as a means by which economic wealth can be derived from export of the continent’s vast natural and mineral resources to the world. The report found:transport is a key driver of economic development and poverty reduction;road transport is the most dominant mode in Africa;the ‘Cost to Market’ of African goods is hampered by the reliance upon road transport;the cost of road transport is not just economic – 19 per cent of the world’s road fatalities were recorded on African roads;African railways are seen to be disjointed and under-utilised;Africa’s ports are key to export trade - yet only six ports (three in Egypt, and three in South Africa) handle about 50 per cent of the continent’s total container traffic;the cost of transport is increasing making African trade even less competitive; andsignificant negative impacts of Africa’s reliance on road transport – health, and greenhouse emissions.We understand that mining the resource is only part of the solution – it has to be put to market at a competitive landed cost.Most African countries face huge costs associated with transport development and ongoing operation – in many cases beyond their available resources.The Australian rail industry has faced and solved many of these challenges.

Nov 22, 2011

By E J. Hofmann, J E. Hofmann, A J. Hofmann-Fritz

"With its Head Quarters in Perth, global heavy engineering company Hofmann Engineering is one of the largest family owned engineering companies in Australia. The company has pioneered a number of new manufacturing processes and design improvements for components of large comminution equipment.Some of these innovations are: Innovative design improvements of high pressure grinding roll (HPGR) forged steel tyres. Hofmann Engineering has developed unique patented tungsten carbide stud and edge protection designs which improve wear life and introduce quick and cost effective replacement options to further extend the life of the tyre. Development of forged fabricated mill heads using rolled and welded high tensile steel plate as an alternative to cast conical mill heads. Establishment of Australian capability to manufacture and export up to 42 ft. (12.8 m) diameter SAG mill shells. Techniques for fast track, product improved replacements of cracked or damaged mill gears, including in situ profile & wear measurements of girth gears using portable coordinate measuring machine (CMM) technology, forged rim steel and induction hardening technology. Gear and pinion mechanical drive designs to 24 MW or higher for SAG mills of 38 ft. to 42 ft. (11.6 m - 12.8 m) diameter as reliable alternatives to gearless drives.The paper presents case studies from the Australian heavy manufacturing facilities of Hofmann Engineering on large, high powered equipment for both the domestic and export markets.CITATION:Hofmann, E J, Hofmann, J E and Hofmann-Fritz, A J, 2013. Australian innovations in high pressure grinding rolls and large grinding mill manufacture, in Proceedings MetPlant 2013, pp 141-151 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Jul 15, 2013

A pilot steel ladle injection facility designed to assist in the production of high quality steels suitable for use in pipelines has been built and commissioned at the Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) plant at Port Kembla Works.The plant design and the injection procedure are described.The performance of the unit and some metallurgical results are discussed in terms of the addition to the steel ladle of various quantities of calcium silicide and a lime based material. The effects of these additions on sulphur content and inclusion morphology and hence on steel ductility are also presented. The influence of ladle lining on desulphurisation is illustrated.On the basis of the experience gathered in the pilot plant a permanent and more sophisticated injection facility has been designed.

Jan 1, 1983

This modern plant consists of a battery of 72 Otto Wilputte Compound Under-jet Ovens with extensive plant for the recovery by-products. The ovens produce 9000 tons of furnace coke per week together with some 17,000,000 cub. ft. of coke oven gas, which is used for heating purposes throughout the works and for heating the ovens.Coal is supplied from the, company's colliel'ies and is stored under a Coal Handling Bridge of 264 ft. span and 365 ft. overall, capable of handling 250 tons per hour. The coal storage space of 1600 ft. can. be extended to a maximum of 2800 ft.Preparation of the coal for coking involves fine grinding which is carried out as follows:-Coal is dumped from rail waggons on to a conveyer belt which delivers it to a 12 ft. x 22 ft. Bradford Breaker, with a capacity of 400 tons per hour. The coal, then approximately 4 in. in size, passes, to the mixing bins; and after careful blending is reduced in the,hammer mills to a fineness suitable for the ovens.The fire coal is elevated to the main storage bin over the battery for subsequent charging by electric larry car. The average cokingtime is 15 hrs. 36 mins. At the end of ,this period the doors, are removed and the coke pushed from the oven by a mm. The coke, is, then quenched with fresh, water and sent to the Blast Furnace in 50-ton Copper Waggons.The gas is exhausted from the ovens by Brown Boveri turbine, exhausters of 23,000. cub, ft, per min. capacity. Exhaust steam from these is used for various. purposes in the By-Product plant. After removing the last traces of tar by Electrostatic Precipitators', the gas is bubbled through sulphuric acid, the ammonia forming ammonium sulphate, which is subsequently washed, dried and bagged for sa,le as a fertilizer. The gas then goes to the Benzol Scrubber Towers, where benzol and other derivatives are recovered and later redistilled and purified. The cleaned gas is then piped to the main works for heating purposes, being used with tar to fire the steel furnaces, and also the soaking pits and reheating furnaces.BLAST FURNACES.The company is at present operating two Blast Furnaces of 800, and 1000 tons nominal daily capacity respectively. The latter was...

Jan 1, 1938

As bizarre an example of competitive salesmanship to be imagined took place last June in Western Australia. A half dozen world renowned mining groups received a Japanese iron and steel investigatory mission. Geologists, engineers and businessmen, all specialists in iron ore, representing elements of the Japanese government and steelmakers, politely grilled each iron ore group for technical information and plans for property development. At stake were sales contracts with Japan for many millions of tons of iron ore. Since approximately two dozen visitors were involved, it was necessary to divide them into four groups for dispensing information, transportation and accommodations at the remote exploration camps. In a continent noted for its wide open spaces, the hinterland of Western Australia is spectacularly lacking in settlements. The state has better than one third of Australian land and statistically 0.8 persons per sq mile. In reality, however, over 400,000 of the 800,000 population reside in Perth. Under such circumstances, properly receiving and feting these important visitors would seem to be difficult but the competing exploration groups vied ingeniously to outdo each other in hospitality.

Jan 10, 1964

The history of the down draught Dwight- Lloyd system of iron ore sintering in Australia is developed. Characterisation of the broad process is given for one plant, and regional divergences from the reference practice are noted and briefly analysed. The subject of the development of high basicity sinters is introduced, and regional differences in approach and results are Examined.

Jan 1, 1972

By B. L. Cusack, N. W. Stump

Selected technological developments applicable to lead and zinc mineral processing and changes in Australian concentration practices made since 1770 are reviewed. Laboratory and pilot plant studies of two new ores have been conducted since 1770. These have resulted in final flowsheet proposals which are described. New production capacity since IT0 has been based on plant expansion or the retreatment of oxidised tailings from plants operating pre-1940ts. Major developments in existing plants have come from the application of computer control to crushing, grinding and flotation and the installation of on-stream analysis systems. Flowsheet configurations have been altered in a number of plants. Selected research topics applicable to lead and zinc processing are also reviewed.

Jan 1, 1977

By Russell C. Frith

This paper presents recent findings concerning longwall caving mechanisms relating to Australian mining conditions and their effect upon longwall support requirements and behaviour. The findings arc based on a program of intensive hydraulic support monitoring in a variety of Australian mining conditions coupled with geotechnical observations. Results from the study illustrate periodic weighting cycles of varying severity and these are related to the overlying geology in terms of the strength of individual strata units, their thickness and proximity to the longwall extraction. Several different caving mechanisms are identified which contribute to periodic weighting cycles. The importance of recognising weighting cycles in relation to the operation of the longwall face will be discussed in detail. Longwall support design methods are critically examined in relation to the case histories of the monitoring program. The applicability of the said design methods to Australian coal mining conditions is discussed and an outline of design considerations to facilitate productive longwalling is presented. Overall, the paper only "scratches the surface" of the work currently being undertaken by ACIRL in this area, and the findings of that work.

Jan 1, 1992