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By M. L. Whisman

Radiotracer techniques were developed for stoichiometric studies of photochemical reactions associated with atmospheric smog formation. Stock blends of separate hydrocarbon and oxygenated compounds were prepared and calibrated. 14C-labeled reactants and products in reaction systems involving hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides at the ppm level were analyzed for qualitative and quantitative data. Precision and accuracy of these methods developed by the Bureau were determined by replication and statistical treatment of data, and these methods are described.

Jan 1, 1969

By Jay D. Dixon

The Bureau of Mines has developed structural design data for unreinforced concrete tunnel linings for drifts used in block caving stopes. Design data are given that consist of moment, thrust, and deformation coefficients from which bending, axial, boundary stresses, and structural deformations can be determined at any point on the lining. Data is given for circular, horseshoe, and rectangular linings, each with two different thicknesses and subjected to eight different loading conditions for drifts excavated in hard and soft rocks. The structural analyses performed are based on procedures that account for both the structural behavior of the lining and that of the drift and take into consideration deformational interaction that occurs between them.

Jan 1, 1973

The initial results from the magnetic sludge factorial experiment are summarized in Table 2. For ease in interpretation, the four separate variables are identified with the high and low level of each variable being represented by + and - signs, respectively. Several important relationships are evident from an inspection of the data in Table 2. For example, magnetic sludges were obtained only during the high temperature tests. Secondly, with the exception of the last three tests, there is an apparent correlation between settled sludge volume (or sludge settling rate) and pH. Data on residual dissolved Fee+ indicate that precipitation of iron is not complete at pH 8 and room temperature (Tests l, 3, 5, and 7). Although this should not have any confounding effect on the interpretation of the results, it is an important observation and an aspect of the overall conceptual process that should be considered carefully during any future developmental work. The data in Table 2 were employed more fully in the calculation of main effects and variable interactions for each of the three responses. For this purpose, a codified design and calculation matrix, shown in Table 3, was used. The derivation of this matrix is described by Davies.(9) The positive or negative signs for variable interactions are obtained simply by algebraic multiplication of the signs for each single variable involved in the interaction. Main effects and interactions are calculated by multiplying the response values (Table 2) by the corresponding effect elements (Table 3), summing the results, and dividing by 8. The resulting value for single variables is also sometimes designated as an average effect, since (for tyro levels of the variable only) it is simply the difference between the average response of all trials carried out at the first level of the variable (factor) and that of all trials at the second level. If the effect of one variable changes at different levels of another variable, the two variables are said to interact. The relative importance of the variable or variables in question is reflected by the absolute magnitude of the calculated main effect or interaction. First-order (two variable) interactions are usually easy to interpret in terms of the physical behavior of the system. Second- and higher-order interactions are often less readily understood, and are often of minor significance in any case. The main effects and interactions derived from the present study in the manner described above are listed in Table 4. It should be noted that

Jan 1, 1971

By Paul J. Barrett

The Bureau of Mines evaluated a sulfurous acid-sulfuric acid process for recovering alumina from clay, in which clay is leached. successively with sulfurous acid and sulfuric acid. The resulting aluminum sulfite and aluminum sulfate solutions are combined and heated to produce a basic aluminum sulfate and sulfur dioxide. Alumina is extracted from the basic aluminum sulfate as sodium aluminate by leaching with dilute sodium hydroxide. After desilication, sulfuric acid is used to precipitate alumina as alumina trihydrate, which is then calcined to alpha-alumina. The estimated fixed capital cost for a plant producing 1,000 tons per day of alumina is about $74 million on a 1971 basis. For comparison with previous alumina-from-clay evaluations, the estimated fixed capital cost for the plant is about $67 million on an M and S Chemical Equipment Index basis of 24.0.0, which is equivalent to a 1960 cost level. Because the operating cost is highly dependent on fuel and electric power costs, graphs are included to show the effect of these items on the operating cost. On a 1971 basis, with natural gas costing 35 cents per million Btu and operating labor costing $4 per hour, the estimated operating cost is about $100 per ton of alumina. On a 1960 basis, with labor costing $2.30 per hour and natural gas costing 25 cents per million Btu, the estimated operating cost is about $86 per ton of alumina.

Jan 1, 1973

By William P. Diamond

Ventilation has long been the primary means of controlling methane emissions in underground coal mines. However, as mining has progressed into gassier areas of U.S. coal basins, supplemental means of methane control have become of interest, if not a necessity, for continued safe and productive mining operations. This paper describes the history and technology of methane drainage in the United States and other countries. The methane drainage technology developed in European countries is a valuable resource since their longer history of mining has already forced mine operators to deal with methane emission problems only now being experienced in the United States. Methods for assessing the need for methane drainage and the data required for planning and implementing an appropriate system are reviewed. The effectiveness of the various technologies for reducing methane emissions underground and/or the in-place gas content of individual coalbeds is illustrated with case studies. In addition to the safety and productivity gains to be realized from methane drainage systems, the potential for commercialization of coalbed methane is discussed.

Jan 1, 1994

By Harold L. Rhodes

The Bureau of Mines has developed a quantitative method to determine water vapor in helium in the range of 0.1 to 15 ppm by volume. This method uses the quantitative chemical reaction of H20 with CaH2, which produces 1 mole of hydrogen for each mole of H20 in the sample. A gas chromatograph is then used to determine the concentration of hydrogen in the product. The precision of the H20 analysis is ±0.05 ppm at a concentration of 1 ppm. This method is used to calibrate a commercial platinum-phosphorus pentoxide (Pt-P205) electrolytic water vapor analyzer that has an improved inlet system and digital voltmeter readout.

Jan 1, 1981

By Yael Miron

Coal mines that undergo self-heatings, and specifically mines that sustain both floor heave and self-heatings, would benefit from the use of sealants to minimize air ingress to susceptible areas. The U.S. Bureau of Mines(USBM) evaluated three sealant systems for this purpose, bentonite-water mixtures, silicate gel, and guar gum gel. The guar gum-based gel was the only sealant that possessed the desired properties of elasticity, ease of preparation, adaptability to the mine, and a long life. In addition, since the gel consists mostly of water, it could quench or cool nearby heatings. Optimal formulations were determined in laboratory tests, and then tested in the USBM Safety Research Coal Mine. Two formulations resulted in stable gels that lasted for at least 12 months in the mine. Semi continuous preparation of gel using an eductor was evaluated and appears feasible. Although guar gum gel is expensive, selective use to prevent heatings in specific areas would be cost-effective, both interms of productivity and enhanced mine safety.

Jan 1, 1995

By Jeffery L. Kohler, Harvinder Singh, Jon G. Bredeson

A survey of electromagnetic noise reports was performed and a summary of the results are given. Industrial concerns were surveyed for techniques to minimize the effects of electromagnetic noise and are presented. The common types of communication links used in mines today are presented. A mathematical development was presented which determines the probability of bit errors versus distance for various types of communication links designed for in mine use. The probability of undetected errors for the protocols of the communication links is given together with burst error detection.

Jan 2, 1981

By D. G. Foot

The Bureau of Mines devised a direct flotation method for recovering potash from carnallite (KC1?MgC12?6H20) ore characterized by a high content of water-insoluble impurities. The method includes (1) a decomposition leach of the carnallite, (2) flocculation-depression of the insoluble slimes, (3) potash rougher, cleaner, and recleaner flotation, and (4) final product leaching. The technique eliminates the necessity for removing the water-insoluble slimes by mechanical or flotation de-sliming. Laboratory results demonstrated that the direct flotation procedure, when compared with conventional techniques, yielded equivalent or improved flotation results with equal or less reagent consumption. Locked-cycle testing of the direct flotation method recovered 87.8 pct of the potassium in the flotation feed in a final product containing 60.6 pct K20. A flowsheet incorporating the carnallite leaching-potash flotation procedure is presented.

Jan 1, 1982

By W. R. Reed

Drilling with water has the potential to significantly reduce the respirable dust concentrations generated from small-diameter rotary drills when drilling blastholes on surface mining operations. However, water adverseky affects tri- cone drill bits commonly used in surface drilling operations, causing excessive wear and premature replacement. Consequently, dry drilling with a dust collector system has the most widespread use in the industry. Tests have been conducted by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NOSH), Pittsburgh Research Laboratory (PRL) on a newly designed device for smaller diameter drills that separates the water from the bailing air before it reaches the bit and thus provides the cost benefit of dry drilling while providing the benefit of wet drilling for dust suppression. The water that is delivered to the hole with the bailing air is separated from the air by a proprietary mechanical device that is encased in a drill sub (short section of drill rod/pipe) located immediately behind the cutting bit. A cascade cyclone and a real-time dust monitor were used to sample dust emissions from the holes. Dust concentrations and silica content were measured when drilling dry versus drilling wet. The tests show that drilling with this water separating sub can reduce both measured dust emissions from the boreholes and visible dust around the drill rig.

By Elaine T. Cullen

Safety training materials appropriate for specific underground noncoal operations in the United States are often outdated or nonexistent. The Spokane Research Laboratory (SRL) of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and H ealth has developed several new training tools, including three videos on common underground activities, software that will allow trainers to create a virtual training mine using their own mine map, and toolbox training materials. SRL is working closely with industry in the development of these tools. Teams of safety professionals are involved in the early stages, and actual mines and miners are involved throughout the production phase. This presentation describes the development process and results of SRL’s safety training projects.

By Charles L. Kimbell

Some comment on data availability must be an integral part of a study such as this. For many years, the centrally planned economy nations of the world regarded as state secrets much of their mineral commodity production information, as well as a considerable body of the foreign trade information on these commodities, and virtually all reporting on their consumption. Within the past 5 years, this pattern has undergone some evolution, and although these countries still fall short of market economy countries in their willingness to publish, there has been measurable improvement. Fit, China, and then subsequently the former CMEA member countries of Eastern Europe have released in print an increasing amount of information in organized, coherent formats, although in a number of cases it is not clear that the information provided is in perfect definitional accord with market economy country practices. Thus, these recently available statistics must be carefully studied to ensure that they are provided in terms of conventional market economy definitions. At the same time that heretofore unpublished information is becoming available for the centrally planned (or formally centrally planned) economy countries, there has been a slow but steady disquieting erosion of availability of production, trade, and consumption data for market economy countries. There are evident reasons for some of these losses in information. The foremost of these relates to corporate mergers. As the number of producing or consuming firms of a given commodity in a given political jurisdiction declines, it is increasingly difficult for government agencies to protect proprietary company data. In past years, this protection was afforded by aggregating data for the several companies operating in the area, but as the number of operators diminishes this is no longer always possible. Hopefully, given this situation, companies will at least authorize release of data after a period of time, when its publication will not provide competitors with unfair access, but will make possible longer term studies.

Jan 1, 1992

Reduce worker exposure to respirable dust without interfering with bag-filling operations. Approach A dust control hood was developed which contains and captures dust close to its source and prevents it from entering the bag-filling operator's work place. How It Works A sheet metal hood is placed around the nozzle of the bag filling machine. The hood is connected through ducts to the plant exhaust ventilation system. Air pulled into the front of the hood and around the sides of the bag picks up dust generated inside the hood, and carries it to the dust collector. The size of the hood can be adapted to fit most fluidized valve-type bag-filling machines. The height of the hood depends on the bulk density of the product and weight of the bags being filled. The 14-inch-width of the hood allows it to be used on multi-nozzle baging machines spaced 16 inches on center. Only 2/3 of the bag is actually within the hood, and this allows easy operator access for placing the bags on the nozzle.

Jan 1, 1978

By Stephen R. Wilson

This paper is one of a series published by the Bureau of Mines on the mineral resources of the Nation. It describes briefly the occurrence of sodium sulfate in Salt Lake and Tooele Counties, Utah, presents data on sampling, and describes ex-traction and refining raw material and a mining research project that has been conducted on the deposits. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Acknowledgments are given to the Tintic Standard Mining Co., Salt Lake City, Utah, and Bartlett Chemicals, Inc., New Orleans, La., for permission to use data obtained by the companies. The authors also acknowledge the courtesy of J. A. Marsh and H. K. Thurber, geologists and mining engineers, for permission to use information in reports prepared by them.

Jan 1, 1957

By F. T. Eddingfield, F. E. Wormser

"The premium on gold in London, reflecting the further depreciation of the pound sterling, has risen from about 22 per cent as noted in these reports for December, to about 28%. This will enable more South African gold mines to come into the profitably ;reducing class, and will also tend to increase the gold production from that region.Figures are now at hand showing the drop that occured in the sold output in the Transvaal, South Africa, during 1919, in which year 8,330,091 ounces of gold were produced against 8,418, 292 ounces in 1918, a decrease of 88,200 ounces. Annual gold output from this, the most important gold area in the world, has dropped almost one million ounces in the past three years, as the following table shows:Although the decrease in not as marked comparatively as that of 1918 over 1917, it is a further indication of the general world-wide curtailment of gold production, and the steady decline in production everywhere that is going on and will continue until some rational means is found to stimulate production, or until conditions return to normal.The subject of relief for the gold miner has received attention in all parts of the world, particularly in the United States and South Africa in the past few years, but in spite of all the plane that have been formulated to remedy the situation none have yet been adopted anywhere, due mainly to great danger of tampering with the gold standard. In the United. States a plan has advanced by H. N. Lawrie of the American Mining Congress to tax the new gold entering into manufacture of jewelry or the arts in general, as furnishing some measure of increased compensation to unprofitable gold mining.Gold production in Australia, as indication by figures issued by the Australian Mines department, shows a marked decrease, and for the first ten months of 1919 amounted to 914,957 ounces against 1,073,317 ounces for a similar period in 1918. Western Australia produces about two thirds of all the gold rained on that continent. The total gold production of Australia for 1919 will reflect the universal decrease in output.Ever since June 7, when the embargo on the export of gold Was lifted, there has been steady and heavy outflow of gold from this country, as a consequence of which considerable gold accumulated during the war has been exported. Changes in the gold money stock of the United States are shown by the following table:"

Jan 1, 1920

Use controlled blasting techniques to reduce blast-produced overbreak damage to underground mine ribs and back for both safer working conditions and improvements in productivity. The Problem Blasting is used in metal and non-metal underground mine slopes, drifts and crosscuts to fracture rock to be excavated and further processed. Standard blasting also produces fractures in the rock beyond the desired excavation area. This is sometimes evident by rough surfaces, undercutting and other signs of excessive damage. This damage contributes to rockfalls in the mines, a major cause of injuries and fatalities, and equipment damage. A variety of controlled blasting techniques has been developed for civil engineering projects where long-term stability is essential. For several reasons, these methods arc not widely used in mining. For example, these methods incur additional costs and time; there is little need to maintain stable openings over long periods of lime; and there is the perception (hat corrective remedial techniques, such as rock bolting, are more practical. Basically the benefits of these methods are not demonstrably clear for application in underground mines.

Jan 1, 1991

By F. N. Kissell

The applicability of the "direct method" for determining the methane content of virgin coalbeds was tested. Preliminary results indicate that the direct method, when applied to exploration cores, can be successfully used to estimate coalbed gas content and also approximately predict the total gas emission from a prospective mine located in the coalbed at the exploration site.

Jan 1, 1973

By J. M. Kuchta

Ignition and flammability test methods were developed by the Bureau of Mines for use in the classification of flammable solids by the Department of Transportation. A rotating disk ignition apparatus and a flame-spread-rate apparatus are proposed for determining the ignitability and flammability, respectively, of most flammable solids. Extremely flammable solids, such as pyrophoric materials, are evaluated by determining their ease of spontaneous ignition in an environmental chamber at high-humidity conditions. Data are presented for various representative solids to show the reliability of the test methods for classifying the materials. A classification system is also proposed for use in government transportation regulations.

Jan 1, 1972

By Hylton R. Brown

Advertisements and articles in technical and trade journals announce the approach of a new age, in which plastics, light metals, laminated wood, and numerous other products or byproducts will be used in the construction of automobiles, airplanes, and furniture and equipment used in our factories, offices, and homes. Undoubtedly, after the war there will be many such developments which will introduce new manufacturing methods and new hazards to challenge the safety engineer. Already we know, from experience in laboratories and pilot plants where these new products are being tested, that there will be many fire and explosion hazards to be overcome. The danger of dust explosions may be one of the principal hazards, because thetic resins and other materials used in the plastics industry, as well as metal powders, wood dust, and other finely divided substances, are capable of forming explosive mixtures in air. Heavy losses of life and property have been caused by dust explosions in flour and feed mills, starch factories, and grain elevators, and it will be well to consider the possibilities that such losses may occur in any new industry and to provide all possible safeguards against hazards. Fortunately, we have learned something about the behavior of dust explosions and know something about the ease of ignition, limits of Explosive concentration, end pressure developed. Our efforts should now be directed toward the application of this knowledge in the development of safe operating practices.

Jan 1, 1945

By D. E. Hirsch

The Bureau of Mines has developed a systematic procedure for separation, characterization, and semiquantitative analysis of high-boiling (350° to 550° C) distillates of crude oils. Isothermal and molecular distillation were used to prepare the 370° to 530° C distillate of Recluse, Wyo., crude oil. The distillate was separated into fractions by chemical treatment, silica-alumina gel adsorption, and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The fractions were analyzed by use of GPC correlations and mass and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometry. The increased knowledge of petroleum composition obtained from the data will contribute to improved petroleum processing and utilization and energy conservation.

Jan 1, 1974