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By B. M. Larsen

Jan 1, 1948

By Lewis Carroll

AS he contemplates the numerous good things the hard-working committees have evolved for the 140th Meeting of the Institute, the Editor knows just how the walrus felt when he uttered his memorable, if somewhat lugubrious lines. For there are the Annual Reception and Dinner at the Commodore, 'the Gold Supply Symposium, the luncheons, general and special, and the Annual Institute of Metals Lecture, a Round Table on Iron Ore and a wonderful Informal Dance at the Grand Central Art, Gallery, substantial general sessions, a Smoker-and many other things. -Old, friends and new, reminiscences and confidential chats, horizons pushed back by new information and adjusted perspectives, courage revived and ambitions stimulated-one with a flair for the modernistic might make something-or nothing-of the kaleidoscopic preview 'of the coming Annual Meeting.

Jan 1, 1931

By H. M. Howe

Page 1. Introduction............................514 2. Definitions.............................517 3. Brevity of the Heating........................517 I. THE HARDENING OF THE BORE..............517 4. The Hardening of the Bore.....................517 5. The Thickness of the Hardened Layer.................517 6. Martensitization..........................518 7. The Hardening Repetitive ......................519 8. The Temperature Cycle.......................519 9. The Hardened Layer is the Merged Layer............... 521 10. The Progressiveness of Merging....................521 11. The Progressive Thickening of the Hardened Layer from Round to Round. 523 12. Merging and Hardening are Cumulative................523 13. Three Additional Causes of the Progressive Thickening of the Hardened Layer 525 14. Progressive Roughening of the Bore..................525 15. Avoidance of an Endothermic Transformation.............525 16. Asymptotic Retardation of the Thickening of the Hardened Layer.....527 17. The Troostitic Layer........................ 529 18. The Usual Lack of Martensitic Markings................529 19. The Thickness of the Hardened Layer Should Increase with the Quantity of Heat Taken up by the Walls of the Bore.................530 20. The Decrease of the Thickness of the Hardened Layer from Breech to Muzsle 531 21. Phstic Deformation as a Contributory aCause of Hardening........531 22. In What Way May Plastic Deformation Hasten Hardening?....... 535 23. Possible Need of Coarsening.....................535 24. Carburization as a Cause of Hardening..........:.....536 25. Does Hardening Increase Erosion?..................-538 11. THE CRACKING OF THE BORE ...............539 26. Appearance of the Bore and Cracks in Elevation............539 27. The Cracks in Elevation in the Rear Ring...............539 28. The Cracks in Elevation in the Forward Ring.............540 29. The Copper Network in the Grooves.................540 30. The Cracking of the Lands......................541

Jan 1, 1918

By Frank W. Dickson, George Tunell

Five hot spring areas of the western United States show evidences of present day deposition of HgS; two also show evidences of accompanying Sb2S3 deposition. Sulfide minerals are depositing at or near the surface from hot waters that differ for each spring ai:ea in amount and kinds of dissolved matter. All the springs contain dissolved substances that act as buffering agents and that cause increased alkalinity with increasing temperature. Transport of Sb2S3 is possible in H2O and in boron and sulfide solutions. Increasing alkalinity and temperature enhance stibnite solubility. Quantitatively important transport of HgS appears restricted to alkaline sulfide solutions that contain HgS2=. Elemental mercury probably forms in deep hot waters because HgS breaks down into mercury and sulfur above 200°C, and free S is removed by reaction with water. Elemental mercury should accompany HgS2= in solutions that were at 200°C or higher. Cinnabar deposits from saturated alkaline sulfide solutions because of combinations of temperature decrease, dilution, oxidation, and reactions with wall rock: Amedee Hot Springs, Boiling Springs, and Coso Hot Springs are areas in which HgS is the only sulfide deposited. Hot waters at Amedee and Boiling Springs are supersaturated with HgS or transport colloidal HgS. Steamboat Springs waters deposit mainly silica and stibnite, but they have deposited HgS recently. Sulphur Bank waters deposit mostly stibnite and some HgS. The hot-spring waters of all springs represent highly modified deep water. Field and laboratory studies support the concept of transport of HgS in moderately alkaline sulfide solutions as HgS2=. Fluctuating deposition of stibnite and cinnabar reflects availability of sulfide or variations in deep-source HgS and Sb,S,. Silica and HgS dissolve mutually in alkaline sulfide solutions, and cinnabar and quartz would be expected to deposit simultaneously. Free mercury given off by hot-spring waters would impregnate country rocks.

Jan 1, 1968

By Bruno KERL

THE list of deaths reported during the year 1905 comprises the following names (the figures in parentheses indicating the year in which the persons named were elected to membership:- Honorary Member.-Dr. Bruno Kerl. Members and Associates.-Charles Christy Adams (1903), John Wesley Anderson (1898), William Burton Barber (1901), Thomas A. Bennett (1900), Luke W. Bryan (1901), Edwin S. Daugherty (1905), William Scott de Camp (1875), George H. Eldridge (1889), B. W. Frazier (1871), John Broome Guinn, Jr. (1897), Dana C. Irish (1900), Harry Hugh Lee (1899), William Alfred Lindsay (1902), Roland C. Luther (1884), James MacNaughton (1890), Gordon McLean (1899), Herbert Holmes McNamara (1902), August R. Meyer (1886), William Orr (1897), William J. Parker, Jr. (1898), Joseph Phillips, Jr. (1895), Charles O. Ripley (1902), Emmerich J. Schmitz (1883), Ludwig Philip Seeger (1900), Jacob Johnston Sperry (1900), Gustavus H. Stoiber (1902), William L. Study (1905), Robert Macnair Wilson Swan (1900), Richard Henry Terhune (1886), Joseph Thiry (1892), John N. Tisdale (1903), Alfred Isham Totten (1897), Walter H. Virgoe (1902), Charles H. Wellman (1890), Harvey L. Williams (1903). Of these, Dr. Bruno Kerl and Prof. B. W. Frazier have been made the subjects of special Biographical Notices in the Bi-Monthly Bulletin 1 the former in No. 4, July, 1905, p. 743, and the latter in No. 5, September, 1905, p. 1097. Concerning the remainder of the list, the following paragraphs comprise such information as could be obtained by the Secretary. Charles Christy Adams, who had been a member of the Institute since 1903, died in Johannesburg, South Africa, August 31. 1905. He was born in New York City, July 13, 1849, and received his technical training at the Colorado State School of

May 1, 1906

By Charles Dorrance

Culm is a general term used in the anthracite regions for many years to denote a mixture of coal, bony coal and impurities which is sent to the refuse-banks. Thus, 35 years ago culm contained the pea and buckwheat sizes of anthracite; but to-day, and as mentioned in this paper, culm is used specifically to denote the material which passes through the smallest screen in the anthracite-breaker. The smallest size of commercial anthracite is known as No. 3 buckwheat, barley, or bird's-eye coal, and is ordinarily made through a round-punched plate having openings & in. in diameter, and over a round-punched plate with openings 3/32 in. or 1/16 in. in diameter. Thus culm will consist of coal, bony coal, slate, gravel, iron pyrite, etc., ranging in size from 3/32 in. down to dust. Other local terms for culm are " slush," " silt," and " dirt." The first experiments towards the utilization of anthracite culm by briquetting, and the first briquetting-work done in this country, were in 1872 at Port Richmond Piers, Philadelphia, Pa., by E. F. Loiseau.1 Clay was used as a binder and the finished briquette was water-proofed with shellac, etc. Excessive cost was given as the reason for discontinuing work at this plant.

Jan 1, 1912

By J. D. A. Morrow

TO my mind the National Bituminous Coal Act so far has proved one of the unhappiest experiences that has ever befallen the bituminous coal operators of the United States. Viewed in the light of its ugly consequences everyone should recognize this measure for what it is -a weird thing as unreal as a page from "Alice in Wonderland." Indeed it might be another stanza to the tale of the Walrus and the Carpenter, with the coal operators in the role of the unfortunate oysters who were taken on that memorable ramble. It is time that coal producers open their eyes, jerk themselves out of any lingering hypnotic optimism about the price-fixing provisions of this law, demand the repeal of these corroding clauses, and then set about remedying as best they can the disastrous effects of this retromingent scheme to regulate the coal business.

Jan 1, 1939

By E. M. Norris

Phosphate deposits are distributed widely over the earth's surface. Of the known areas of deposit, eight fields are of particular interest because of their vast reserves of high grade phosphatic material and the volume of their production that goes to the world's great consuming areas. These fields, in the order of their present economic importance, are situated respectively in Florida, French Morocco, Kola Peninsula of U.S.S.R., Tunisia and Algeria, Tennessee, Montana-Idaho-Wyoming-Utah, Ocean and Naru Islands in the Gilbert group, and in Egypt. The Rocky Mountain deposits have a comparatively low ranking in the phosphate trade of today, but this field contains one of the largest known reserves of phosphatic material, associated with which are recoverable trace minerals, which are of increasing importance in our national economy. The first discoveries of phosphate rock in the western states were recorded in Cache1 and Rich2 counties in Utah, respectively in 1889 and 1897. Mining operations were begun on these deposits near Montpelier, Idaho, in 1906. During the latter year geological studies of the phosphate beds were started by Weeks and Ferrier of the U. S. Geological Survey. These studies have been continued to the present day by a distinguished roster of the Survey's technicians. As a result of this systematic exploratory program, the Survey has published a series of bulletins, papers, and maps, which provide the mining public with a comprehensive study of the exposed

Jan 1, 1949

By William B. Potter

It is a time-honored custom in this, as in other kindred bodies, for the retiring President on giving place to his successor, after a year of official duties which have been the means of directing his attention in a more than usual degree to the work and interests of the Association, to report the results of his observations from this outlook, and the thoughts that may be suggested by the view. In looking out over the many fields of activity within the range of this Institute, the attention may be arrested by special features marking recent progress and development, or such as by their meager outline or lack of important detail stand in less pleasing contrast, or. even form unsightly objects in the view. It may be that the special field and particular work in which one is engaged will, when observed from the more distant standpoint, or in the light of the whole outlook of the profession, assume a different aspect or develop features of new interest and importance. In this way some special object may suggest to the observer a, fitting theme for the occasion. To others, again, an outline of the whole view may seem a more useful subject for study and review. All fields are examined and the wide horizon of the whole profession scanned to note and report whatever is new in knowledge and practice—the new permanent bench-marks that appear near the horizon designating ground definitely located; the stakes which mark reconnoissance into new territory, and even the prominent objects that faintly appear through the mist of the distant atmosphere, and which may serve later on as points of attachment for the advancing lines of survey into the unknown. And besides these, there is the progress of the work in older and nearer fields—what has been attempted, what accomplished,

Jan 1, 1889

By Arthur F. Hagner

The titaniferous magnetite deposit at Iron Mountain, Wyoming, is in Precambrian anorthosite. Individual ore bodies are lenses, commonly arranged en echelon, conformable to the platy crystal structure and compositional layering of the anorthosite; a few transect these features at various angles. The ore bodies are on the east flank of the principal anticline in the anorthosite mass. Magnetite and ilmenite, accompanied by spine!, are the ore minerals. The principal gangue minerals are olivine, which was introduced with the ore, and plagioclase, the chief constituent of the anorthosite. The anticlinal region appears to have been a structurally weak zone, and westward-bowing curves of the axis were especially favorable sites for localization of the two largest massive ore bodies. These bodies are synclinal and plunge southeast. The proportion of magnetite-ilmenite to olivine and to anorthosite appears to be related to structural features. Where magnetite-ilmenite is present with olivine, the magnetite-ilmenite is encountered along the most pronounced parts of a fold where anorthite content is highest, whereas olivine is associated principally with more gently folded portions. During granulation and recrystallization of the anorthosite mass, temperature and pressure changes furnished the energy required to release and mobilize iron and other elements that migrated to areas of low pressure, the ore zone. Some iron and magnesium may have combined with silica from partly dissociated plagioclase to form olivine. The ore formed by replacement of anorthosite as indicated by: (1) the marked changes in mineralogy along strike, dip, and plunge of an ore body; (2) the concentration of massive ore in folds and olivine on limbs; ( 3) the halo of low-grade mineralized rock that transects the structure of the anorthosite in the hanging wall; and ( 4) the layering in the large southern ore body, that strikes more easterly than the trend of the body.

Jan 1, 1968

Organization Place Date 1917 American Institute of Architects Philadelphia., Pa. Dec. 26-29 American Society of Mechanical Engineers New York City. Dec. 4-7 American Mining Congress State Chapter Phoenix, Ariz. Dec. 26-29 1918 American Society of Civil Engineers New York, N. Y. Jan. 22-25 American Institute of Mining Engineers New York, N. Y. Feb. 18-21

Jan 12, 1917

APRIL 10-Officially, spring comes to the Great Lakes on March 21 as it does elsewhere in the country but in the Superior district continued snow and freezing until late in March have caused citizens in Duluth to place their bets on April 15 for the first ore vessels if the ice breakup is left to Mother Nature. North and west of Duluth and near the eastern end of the Mesabilies the little town of Aurora, population 1100. As the little v-nosed snowplow, pride of the community, shuttled back and forth clearing Aurora's few sidewalks, the crowd in Bradich's Cafe were more interested in the impending high school state championship basketball tournament in Minneapolis than in the outcome of Erie Mining Company's petition for water rights for their proposed 10 million ton taconite concentrating plant. Such a plant would employ 4500 workmen, and at the prevailing ratio of 10 people for every mine worker in Minnesota, this would mean a 45,000 increase in population for Aurora and the vicinity in the next few years. Downstate fishermen are alarmed at the flurry of activity by the mining companies in pushing plans for large scale recovery of iron from taconite. Inconvenience to these gentlemen will be inconsequential when compared with the vast increase in payrolls for range communities. Oliver is pushing the construction of a fine ore agglomeration plant at Virginia which will give them valuable experience for projected taconite processing. Oglebay, Norton & Co. is ready to go at Beaver Bay, north of Duluth, as the right of way for a railroad from Babitt to Beaver Bay is secured as well as permission to dispose of tailing into Lake Superior at the site of the proposed concentrating plant. This company is also doing research in agglomeration at Ashland, Ky., in cooperation with other interests. The financing is yet to be worked out. Of the four possibilities for agglomerating taconite concentrate-sintering, pellitizing, nodulizing and briquetting-the prospects for pelletizing appear the most favorable., It seems likely that 60 cents per ton can be saved by this process over sintering because only 1 to 2 pct of coal is required as compared with 7 pct for sintering. One reason for the lower coal consumption is that the chemical transition of magnetite to hematite which transpires in the pelletizing process is exothermic.

Jan 5, 1950

By David Turnbull

IN isothermal recrystallization processes, new crystals generally grow into the matrix until they impinge upon other new crystals or an external surface, at constant linear rates G. Before impingement the perceptible course of growth can be described by the equation: 1 = G(t-7) C1I where, G = dl/dt, 1 is a crystal dimension measured in a constant direction, t is the time, and 7, the nucleation period, is a positive intercept on the time axis. Fig. 1 is a schematic representation of I as a function of time for a recrystallizing grain. G is dependent upon temperature, driving energy (strain or surface energy), relative grain and boundary orientations, but is generally independent of time. The frequency of nucleation, fi, (time" volume") can be defined by the equation: N = 1/fV [2] where ? is the mean nucleation period and V is the volume of the specimen that has not recrystallized. The kinetics of primary and secondary recrystallization generally can be described satisfactorily in terms of the parameters N and G only.'-" After recrystallization is complete the average grain size 7 increases with time by "normal grain growth;" didt, the average rate of grain growth, is strongly time dependent and has not yet been precisely related to G for the motion of the individual grain boundaries constituting the system. It has been suggested4* " that the elementary act in grain boundary migration is closely related to the elementary act in grain boundary self-diffusion. Although the distance of atom movement in the two processes may be somewhat different, there is reason to expect that the activated states may be very similar, so that the free energy of activation for grain boundary migration should be of the same order of magnitude as for grain boundary self-diffusion. Therefore, it is desirable to develop a satisfactory basis for comparing data on self-diffusion and grain boundary migration and to make such comparisons where possible. Theory The formal theory of grain boundary migration rates is analogous to the theory for the rate of growth of crystals into supercooled liquids reviewed elsewhere 6-8. Boreliuss has shown that the latter theory describes, within the theoretical uncertainty, the growth of selenium crystals into supercooled liquid selenium. Motto and more recently Smolu-chowski" have derived expressions for the rate of boundary migration in recrystallization. The treatment to be presented is similar to Mott's excepting that the formalism of the absolute reaction rate theory will be used. The atomic mobility, M, in grain boundary migration is defined by: G = -M6p/6x where p is the chemical potential per atom and x is the coordinate measured in the direction of grain boundary movement. Let AF be the free energy difference per gram atom on the two sides of the boundary and k the thickness of the boundary. For RT>>AF the potential gradient across the boundary (6p/6x) is essentially linear and it follows that: SF/8x = - aF/N\ [4] where N is Avogadro's number. According to the Nernst-Einstein equation, M is related to a diffusion coefficient, Do, for matter transport in grain boundary migration by the equation: M = Da/kT [5] Substituting eqs 4 and 5 into eq 3 gives the basic relation between Do and G: G = DoaF/\RT [6] Do values may be calculated from experimental values of G from eq 6 and directly compared with the coefficient of self-diffusion within the crystal, DL, or the grain boundary self-diffusion coefficient D,. However, a more convenient, though equivalent, basis for comparing atomic mobility in grain boundary migration and self-diffusion is through the constants of the absolute reaction rate theory. According to this theory diffusion coefficients may be written:" D = k2(kT/h) exp [-AF,/RT] 171 aFa, the free energy of activation, is related to the measured energy of activation, Q, by the equation: AFA = Q - T aSx - RT [8] where aSa is the entropy of activation. Substituting eqs 8 and 7 into eq 6 gives: G = ek(kT/h) (aF/RT) exp [(AS,,)C/R] exp C-Qc/RTI C91 where the subscript G refers to boundary migration. The relationship between the driving free energy and the free energy of activation in boundary migration is indicated schematically in Fig. 2. Experience indicates that the variation of G with temperature can be described by: G= Go exp [- Qc/RT] [10] where Go and Qc are generally temperature independent over wide ranges of temperature. Comparison of eq 9 with eq 10 gives:

Jan 1, 1952

By H. P. Croft

[ ] Professor Hibbard's paper presents a very interesting theory concerning the influence of texture on the tendency of brass tube to stress-corrosion crack. I should like to present the result of some work done in 1941 which may throw further light on the subject. In the first place, in regard to his review of the influences of grain boundaries, we not only confirmed the findings which he quoted, but also were unable to crack single crystals of beta brass in the standard mercurous nitrate test in 50 hr under loads up to 18,500 psi. Samples containing two or more crystals of beta brass always cracked at grain boundaries and generally followed the same pattern as for alpha brass, although cracking occurred sooner than in alpha brass under the same conditions. Such a specimen is shown in Fig 4. Second, at the possible risk of repetition, we should like to call attention to the reported role of grain size as influencing the tendency to stress-corrosion crack. This phenomenon, originally mentioned by Dr. Allan Morris in the Transactions, AIME, 1931, is illustrated in Fig 5, showing the effect of variations in grain size on the tendency of drawn brass wires to crack under load in the mercurous nitrate solution. This was taken from my work published in Proceedings A.S.T.M. 41, (1941), 905.

Jan 1, 1948

By C. A. Zapffe, C.E. Sims

Many hundreds of publications have appeared during the past 78 years that treat the subject of hydrogen in iron and steel.l05 but conclusions regarding the functions of hydrogen in causing some important defects in steel are still unsatisfactory to many; and other hydrogen-caused phenomena yet remain to be identified with this gas. The most widely discussed of these defects is hydrogen embrittlement, but the conception, perhaps the popular one, that embrittlelnent is due to hydride formation aoes not conform to the known facts.l04 The true identity of hydrogen embrittlement seems instead to lie in a mosaic nature of metal crystals, which is a concept not Yet accepted by most metallurgists. A study of hydrogen embrittlement therefore provides new viewpoints in regard to the crystalline substructure of steel.

Jan 1, 1941

By C. E. Sims, C. A. Zapffe

Many hundreds of publications have appeared during the past 78 years that treat the subject of hydrogen in iron and steel.l05 but conclusions regarding the functions of hydrogen in causing some important defects in steel are still unsatisfactory to many; and other hydrogen-caused phenomena yet remain to be identified with this gas. The most widely discussed of these defects is hydrogen embrittlement, but the conception, perhaps the popular one, that embrittlelnent is due to hydride formation aoes not conform to the known facts.l04 The true identity of hydrogen embrittlement seems instead to lie in a mosaic nature of metal crystals, which is a concept not Yet accepted by most metallurgists. A study of hydrogen embrittlement therefore provides new viewpoints in regard to the crystalline substructure of steel.

Jan 1, 1941

Jan 1, 1968

By AIME AIME

BY the end of 1943, the United States will be able to produce aluminum at a rate of 1,150,000 tons a year. How much aluminum is 1,150,000 tons? It is sufficient to replace every railroad passenger car in this country three times a year. Or, it would put a thirty-piece aluminum cooking utensil set in every one of America's 34,000,000 homes with enough metal left over to make 5,000,000 miles of aluminum transmission cable, such as was used in the electrification of much of rural America. Expansion of aluminum production capacity for the war program has occurred in three steps: (1) expansion by private industry; (2) the letting of contracts by the Defense Plant Corp. for the construction of additional aluminum plants which may remain after the war to compete with existing facilities; and (3) the more recently announced D.P.C. program for the building of emergency plants to make aluminum, using stand-by power available in large metropolitan centers power of relatively higher cost, making it questionable whether such plants, now gravely needed, will be able to compete in a peacetime economy.

Jan 1, 1943

In order to assist in the building up of the industries and commerce of France, by cooperating with the Congres General du Genie Civil, the four Founder Societies have appointed the following committee: E. G. Spilsbury and Arthur S. Dwight representing the American In-stitute of Mining and. Metallurgical Engineers; George F. Swain and Nelson P. Lewis to represent the American Society of Civil Engineers; Charles T. Main and George W. Fuller to represent the American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Lewis B. Stillwell and Andrew M. Hunt to represent the American. Institute of Electrical Engineers.

Jan 12, 1919

By William Priestley

The author has shown, by .practical experiments, how the rate of cooling steel in the mold governs ingotism, segregation, the formation of dendrites, and the distribution of intergranular material; and the resulting effect these conditions have on the physical qualities of the steel before annealing, after annealing, and after forging. The paper also describes how the structure of steel is affected by the design of the mold and the method of pouring. It is shown that the various constituents of carbon steel segregate differently under different rates of cooling. For the classes of steel covered in this paper, it is concluded that the best physical structure and the most uniform chemical composition is obtained by pouring the steel at a low temperature and solidifying as rapidly as possible in the mold. MUCH time has been devoted, by metallurgists, to the study of steel after solidification and remarkable strides have been made in the heat treatment of steel, but less knowledge is available of the thermophysical, activity of the constituents of steel prior to solidification in the mold. It is known that certain elements added to steel produce marked changes in physical properties, also that other elements added to steel produce similar changes, but we have only meager knowledge as to how these elements combine in steel under different conditions of solidification. It is not sufficient to know, from chemical analysis, that a certain element is present in steel. We should know how this element is in combination with the other elements and whether the combination is such as will give the greatest physical properties. Certain elements go into solid solution with the iron, while others segregate to the grain boundaries and combine with the impurities collected there. Until it is known where an alloy produces the most beneficial effect and a means, is determined for controlling its physical location by altering solidification conditions, or otherwise, we will not obtain the maximum value from our alloys.

Jan 2, 1924