Search Documents

By Joseph Pogue

ANY mechanism, either natural or artificial, for regulating the func-tioning of a given unit in the general economy must operate toward the maintenance of equilibrium if it is to survive. The petroleum industry, concerned as it is with the production of a natural resource of specialized character, is surrounded not only by the economic factors common to other industries but by an extra set of unique elements centering about the fugitive character of crude petroleum under conditions of competitive development. The term equilibrium, therefore, so far as the oil business concerned, involves a combination of economic and physical factors: the first set having to do with supply, demand, costs, profit margins, purchasing power, and the like; and the second, with underground pres-sures in oil pools, efficient rates of extraction, and all other aspects of engineering that may be summarized by the familiar term "conserva-tion." The two categories, in fact, are not as clearly divided as the foregoing statement would imply, for in practice it will be found that the economic and physical aspects have a pervasive interaction and interrelationship. If the development of the petroleum industry in the United States is examined from its inception in 1859 down to the present, it will be found that, beginning about 11 years ago, a new mechanism for regulating the production of crude petroleum made its appearance. Prior to this recent period, the production of this raw material was determined by competitive forces operating without outside restraints. At present the output of crude oil is subjected to supervision by regulatory bodies in most of the oil-producing states, which impose upon the operators certain conditions having to do with the manner and rates of production. Thus, in the space of a decade, the mechanism for producing crude oil has changed from an automatic to a designed procedure called proration. And in its short history this method has been marked by a rapid evolution in its nature and incidence, with progressive changes still under way.

Jan 1, 1938

The selection of Sydney and Port Kembla for the First Ordinary Meeting of the Institute for 1938 was, no doubt, a recognition of the celebrations marking the 150th Anniversary of the first settlement of this country. In selecting a theme for my Presidential Address, I propose to depart from the precedents of my distinguished predecessors, as I feel that this year of celebration is the natural year for a brief review of the history and progress of the Institute.In July, 1892, the Amalgamated Mining Managers' Association of Australasia held its Annual Conference in Ballarat, Victoria, when Mr. Uriah Dudley, who attended as a delegate from Broken Hill, brought forward the advisability of the formation of an Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Mr. Dudley was authorised to take such action as he thought fit, and the result was the formation of a Provisional Committee in Broken Hill of men who were mostly members of the American Institute of Mining Engineers. Broken Hill was therefore really the birthplace of the Institute.A circular headed Broken Hill, September, 1892, with the signature of Uriah Dudley, Acting Hon. Secretary, Provisional Committee, which was sent to those likely to take an active part in the formation of an Institute, read as follows:-The Mining Managers' Association of Australasia has suggested that the time has now arrived when an Australasian Institute of Mining Engineers should be established, having objects similar to the American Institute, of which all of the Thirty-one Colonial...

Jan 1, 1938

By P. P. Gregory

Natural petroleum gas occurring in the oil-bearing reservoirs is found to exist either as free gas associated with the oil and/or in solution in the oil. In some virgin fields practically no free gas is encountered under the reservoir conditions of pressure and temperature, although in other fields a considerable section of the "pay" horizon is occupied by free gas. In other words, a given oil field may or may not have a gas cap before the exploitation takes place. However, when the reservoir pressure is reduced to a point below the critical saturation pressure by withdrawals of fluids from the producing formation, the gas dissolved in the oil inevitably begins to come out of solution and becomes free gas. Under the controlled methods of production and drilling, a portion of this gas is produced with the oil to the surface and a portion of it remains within the reservoir to accumulate at higher structural levels toward which it migrates by virtue of its low specific gravity. The rate of growth of a gas cap in a given structure depends primarily upon the rate of decline in the reservoir pressure. If the rate of pressure decline is rapid, the gas cap likewise will grow rapidly. On the other hand, shrinkage in the gas-cap area was noted in some fields in which reservoir pressures wereincreasing. Determination of Gas-oil Contact and Thickness of Gas Cap The gas-oil contact can be conveniently located in the process of drilling a well and by electrical logging. However, very little can be found in the petroleum literature concerning methods of predetermining gas-oil contacts in producing reservoirs. Therefore, the writer feels justified in describing briefly a simple, workable, and inexpensive method of determining gas-oil contacts and outlining the limits of gas-cap areas in a field where such knowledge may be essential for efficient production and development operations. The method involves the determination of the following data: (I) Structural data, such as the depth or elevation of the top' of "pay" horizon; (2) reservoir pressures; (3) tubing and casing pressures at the well head; (4) static oil-pressure gradient; (5) static gas-pressure gradient. These data can be secured with a minimum of expense, inasmuch as the

Jan 1, 1938

By H. J. Hand

STATISTICAL methods are becoming increasingly important for inter-preting routine reports, or for analyzing special test data in industrial plants, such as steel plants. They have already become practically a necessity to the plant metallurgist. A paper by Chancellor,1 written in 1933, gives many examples of the benefits the plant metallurgist can derive from the use of these methods. The present paper discusses applications of importance to many others who must analyze reports in the steel plant, as well as other examples of interest to metallurgists. Statistical Methods Logically Suited to Plant Problems.-Statistical methods are not new as a branch of mathematics. Until comparatively recently, however, practical applications were confined mainly to actuarial science, biology, and economics; fields in which an observed result is obviously influenced (and often determined) by a complicated set of vari-ables more or less constantly tending to affect it. As pointed out by Daeves, 2 a decade or more ago, problems in industry are basically similar to those in these other fields in that a given result is at least partly due to that chance combination of causes happening to be present at the time. When trying to do the same thing repeatedly, constant results are never attained; they vary about the desired result with more or less well defined mathematical regularity. Such a condition arises out of the great number of factors tending to affect the final result. If statistical methods are so valuable to the biologist or economist, why then should they not also be of great value to plant managers and engineers, and to all who must interpret reports from various sources in the industrial plant? Within the last few years, industry has become conscious of this situation, and the use of these methods has been rapidly expanding in such plants. ?

Jan 1, 1938

By Alfred W. G. Wilson

THE state of development of its iron and steel industries serves as a 1eading index to the general condition of a nation's business affairs. In this paper, the authors present an economic study of the progress of this group of industries in Canada for the decade 1927-1936. The statistical data and most of the tables which accompany this article have been com-piled by John Casey, Statistician, Bureau of Mines; the text and some of the computations have been prepared by the seni0r author. The principal source of statistical information has been the publications of the Dominion Bureau of Statistics; where other sources have been consulted, they are noted in the text. All weights are given in short tons. Records for the years 1913 and 1918 are also presented in the group of tables dealing with iron ore and pig iron; they will serve as a basis for comparison with nearly normal years in the two decades prior to 1927-36, which included the abnorma1 years of the Great War. GENERAL REVIEW At the beginning of the decade under review, this group of industries had returned to almost normal production, as determined by pre-war conditions. Iron ore consumption showed a steady increase between 1927 and 1930; a marked decline began in 1930 and reached its culmination in 1932, when the recorded consumption of ore was 293,353 to11s, about 16 per cent of the average consumption during the first four years of the decade; the last four years of the decade show a gradual increase in consumption; the amount of ore used in 1936 was still slightly below the amount used ten years before, in 1927 (see Table 1, top).

Jan 1, 1938

By John B. Umhau

[This !m-i~!.al survey giver, statistice.1 data res;?~dirf ~:rimay ard ?eco~- dqr or scmn tin used in thL: United St,ztas by industries an? incluclcz d;ta on stop&apos;ics, ~urchares, ard plnrt losr.c.5. It is :i ml:anwe of consq~tion in terms of fir.is1icd -prcd.~cts nz6.e iry initid ti11 Sabric:,.torc,, that is, aon- cerns that purchzse virc,in zni s~col~d&apos;l~y i.i.5 ti:; 01&apos; tin c;cra.. rav materi,als ar,d co:lrrert them into !ror?ucts such F!: ti:i plz.te, ~lloyr;, and. c?hemic?ls; comy~nias ;~urchn.&apos;.ii~; alloys, ch:rr.ic,~l::, or tin vl?.tc fcr furthcr a:mflzc- ture ?rc: ~-.f>t i~ci~~dcd. Tilit r~lqe:;tionrr::ire submit tod to consunern ar,nt:incd no dofinition of rnr.oncl.:ryr me$.-i; but, ovrirq to ti~i-: a~counti~ procedure used s.l~o~c-:t 1&apos; thu scrnn hac i~-.rtergol:e ch?rri?~ of ovinerzhip or titlo, thc rc!coverod t! n !its b~en i-c<;,r(it.!rj L.S r,e~3r;d:q met.1. Tbv tin content ~f ]

Jan 1, 1938

By Walter Loel

THE application of aerial photographs to all phases of geologic mapping is set forth, indicating the advantages to be gained in different types of country and under varying climatic conditions. Methods of field and office procedure are given from a geological point of view, as well as suggestions regarding the best methods of aerial mapping for different uses and under varying field conditions, including the study of submarine geology. Aerial photographs with accompanying geologic maps are shown to illustrate the appearance from the air of different geologic features under varying climatic and topographic conditions.

Jan 1, 1938

By David Segura

THE Huitzuco mercury deposits have been described by C. W. Vaupell,1 therefore the general information such as location, history, production, etc. will not be repeated here. The present owners acquired the property when the deep levels of the Cruz mine were flooded, and it was believed that a relatively large tonnage of low-grade ore and fills would be encountered in the flooded section, because f the early mining methods used in the Cruz mine. The mine was partly unwatered and about 187,000 tons of fills was pit-sampled in the San Cayetano stope. These fills average 2.4 kg. Hg per. ton. During the period of maximum production at Huitzuco, the ores were sorted in the mine and cobbed into 3-in. pieces, which were treated in Scott furnaces. Large pieces of raw ore are found in the sinter, and it is indicated that both recovery and, costs were not very satisfactory. Recent practice has been to treat the ores in closed retorts made of 10-in. pipes. Because f the presence of combined antimony in the mineral livingstonite (HgS.2Sb2S3) and considerable native sulphur, little or no metallic mercury is recovered in the condensers and a second retorting of the condenser muds is-necessary. This makes the treatment of the ores expensive and tends to low recoveries of mercury. The prin-cipal costs of retorting are, in their relative order: (1) fuel, (2) low recov-ery of mercury, (3) replacement of retort pipes, (4) labor.

Jan 1, 1938

By G. D. Coe

Float-and-sink tests indicate what results are obtainable by gravity separation and rare therefore an invaluable adjunct to most coal-cleaning processes. However, it is difficult to make a direct interpretation of float-and-sink data on coal, and several systems for interpreting them have been proposed. Of these, that developed and used extensively by Bird3/, Yancey4/, and Gandrud5/ is considered by the author to be the most satisfactory. It makes use of four interrelated curves (hereafter referred to as be "washability curves"). These curves were explained by Bird in a paper6/ published in 1923, but his explanation has been regarded by some as not sufficiently

Jan 1, 1938

By Carlton E. Brown

The purpose of this report is to present results of tests on the effectiveness of a spray of water mist, commonly called compressed-air water blast or water blast, in reducing the concentration of dust present in the air shortly after blasting and during mucking of the blasted material. Many observations have been male on the effectiveness of such ,sprays, but published quantitative information on comparative dust concentrations with and without their use, obtained by dust-sampling methods in use in this country, is rare if not absent. Tests conducted in South Africa about 19164/ and more recently in England5/, 6/ have shown that such sprays reduce the dust concentration to very low values within a fen minutes after blasting,

Jan 1, 1938

By Frederick Becket

DOCTOR Albert Sauveur, distinguished scientist and Honorary Mem-ber of this Institute, predicted in the first Howe Memorial Lecture that the privilege of delivering this annual address would be considered a highly significant honor. The intervening years have well borne out Sauveur&apos;s prophecy. I wish to assure the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers that I also deeply appreciate this honor, recognizing at the same time the present and even more the future respon-sibilities with which it is accompanied. Several of the previous lecturers had the good fortune to attend the classes of Professor Howe and to work in his laboratories. I was similarly favored, although in my instance and to my great regret the period was all too short. However, Howe&apos;s book, published in 1903, "Iron, Steel and Other Alloys," afforded me abundant opportunity to continue these studies. How well I remember the inspiration I derived from this famous book by Howe, the metallurgical master, pioneer, and educator! Remembering that Professor Howe contributed numerous papers to The Metallographist, a magazine supported from a technical point of view by the world&apos;s pioneers in metallography, I was curious a few days ago to learn the nature of Howe&apos;s early contributions to this magazine. The first paper by Howe in the first year of The Metallographist (1898) dealt with the allotropic theory; the second also treated of allotropy, and I quote the first sentence. of that paper: The allotropic theory of the hardening of steel may, like so many other important theories, have to be accepted or rejected not on direct proof or disproof, but on the accumulation of circumstantial evidence for or against it.

Jan 1, 1938

By R. F. Mehl, M. Gensamer

Creep investigators have made extensive studies to determine the interrelation of stress, temperature and the tensile creep rates of metals. It has been suggested that at small stresses the secondary or constant creep rates obey a simple viscous law. Building upon this suggestion, departure from pure viscosity as stress increases may be expressed mathematically as a consequence of reversibly altered viscosity or "flowability" in the same sense that temperature change reversibly alters viscosity. From the index to alteration of viscosity, a value for the energy of secondary creep may be derived having the magnitude of the free energy of vaporized metal. The suggestion is made that application of stress alters the energy of secondary creep. Strain energy is argued to be but a minor factor in the energetics of secondary creep. A deformation mechanism involving the large energy associated with secondary creep implies a sort of solid self-diffusion process. Evidence indicates that creep strain above the recrystallization temperature takes place by crystallographically directed self-diffusion at grain boundaries and points of crystal defects. A self-diffusion theory of secondary creep is proposed, embracing the principles of the Dushman-Langmuir theory of solid diffusion. An equation is suggested whereby the rate of tensile creep may be related directly to the physical and structural character of the solid metal. Basis of Investigation Much of the investigation that has been given to the creep characteristics of metals and alloys has been directed toward studying the dependence of creep rate upon stress. Great interest has centered upon the approximately uniform rate of flow that has been demonstrated for numerous metals and alloys. At temperatures above the strain-hardening ranges of materials, this uniform rate frequently is attained after a relatively short period of initial rapid flow, and the period during which it persists determines for most practical purposes the useful life of the

Jan 1, 1938

By Albert L. Toenges

[sing tho ppsf; few Yomn t!le:.c. hcs beer. p. trqnd away frorn locomotive haulwe of cop2 frorn tile losdiw point to tho prop,nration plant of bitu~i- nnus-cod strip mlncc to a;~to~lzcd. h,71Jlr.:~. The qrostion has arisen rrhethcr this is alwqvs econ~nicd, rxcl the purpcrse or&apos; tnf s investigation is to de- termine, if possible, the econonic limlt for ~~torieod had.we. sing tho ppsf; few Yomn t!le:.c. hcs beer. p. trqnd away frorn locomotive haulwe of cop2 frorn tile losdiw point to tho prop,nration plant of bitu~i- nnus-cod strip mlncc to a;~to~lzcd. h,71Jlr.:~. The qrostion has arisen rrhethcr this is alwqvs econ~nicd, rxcl the purpcrse or&apos; tnf s investigation is to de- termine, if possible, the econonic limlt for ~~torieod had.we.]

Jan 1, 1938

By H. F. Yancey

This report, dealing with the separation of coal from its associated impurities by means of a pulsator-type jig, continues the series of reports that have been issued by the Bureau of Mines, in which detailed study has been made of the efficiency and mechanism of separating coal and impurities in various coal-cleaning appliances. The previous reports have dealt with the piston jig, coal-washing table, pneumatic table, and Baum-type jig.5/ Such studies of the separation accomplished by any form of concentration device are essential and necessarily preliminary to any intelligent attempt to improve the performance of such equipment Object and Plan The pulsator-type jig was developed recently by G. A. Vissac. Although two articles(2) describing plants using this type of cleaning unit appeared in 1936, both dealt principally with plant design and layout rather than with plant performance The object of the stork described in this report was to determine the efficiency of the separation made by the pulsator jig on a sized feed, the specific gravity at which the separation between coal and impurity was effected, and the influence of the specific-gravity composition of the coal on the character of the separation made.

Jan 1, 1938

By J. B. Austin

In considering so complex a process as the smelting of iron in the blast furnace, there is obviously no single method of calculating efficiency that gives a complete appraisal of the performance of the furnace in all its several functions; such a comprehensive view as is required to evaluate producing ability and manufacturing costs for a given furnace is obtained only by considering a group of efficiencies, each of which measures the performance of the furnace from a specific point of view. For instance, there is the rate of consumption of coke per ton of iron produced, which is probably the most frequently considered, and is certainly one of the most important of the group; there is the efficiency of recovery of iron charged; and there is the efficiency of utilization of energy, both chemical and thermal, in some respects related to the former two yet in other ways independent of either. In each of these cases, the calculation can be made on the basis of the actual input of material or energy, or it may be based upon a comparison with the minimum amount of material or energy that would be required by a "perfect" furnace; that is, an imaginary ideal furnace analogous to the perfect steam engine used in thermodynamic calculations, when this furnace is operating under optimum conditions. Moreover, the furnace itself can be considered either as an apparatus for smelting iron or, taking a somewhat less common point of view, as a gas producer yielding iron and slag as by-products. Some of these efficiencies are more useful than others, yet all are instructive; for a knowledge of them not only leads to good engineering practice from the standpoint of control but also discloses limits to possible improvement in performance and indicates the lines along which improvement is most likely to be profitable. Estimates of some of these efficiencies have appeared from time to time in the literature, but many of them are open to objection because they are based on data of uncertain accuracy or because they have been calculated without due regard to the thermodynamic principles involved. Moreover, so far as the author is aware, no general survey of the blast furnace comparing its performance in all the aspects mentioned has been made.

Jan 1, 1938

By M. Gensamer

IN applied mechanics and in metallurgy the transition from elastic to inelastic action is a matter of considerable interest and importance. Often the first inelastic deformation is apparently quite homogeneous; that is, uniformly distributed throughout the specimen. Sometimes this deformation is heterogeneous; that is, localized; inelastic deformation proceeds to some definite amount in restricted regions before adjacent regions of the specimen are inelastically deformed. In such cases the deformation does not become homogeneous until the whole specimen has been deformed the amount corresponding to that for each localized deformation. If the test is stopped before uniform extension sets in, the heterogeneous character of the deformation is apparent on the surface of the specimen through characteristic markings, which have been called "Lüders"&apos; lines, "Hartmann&apos;s" lines, the "Piobert effect," or simply "flow figures." These markings are the source of considerable trouble in fabricating operations, particularly in the deep drawing of steel sheet. In many cases where the transition is of this nature, the stress developed at the upper limit of the elastic range is greater than the stress during the period of heterogeneous deformation, giving rise to the familiar "drop of the beam" effect in testing. The amount of the yield-point elongation, as well as the value of the stress at the lower yield point (the value to which the stress drops when yielding begins), are functions of the temperature and the testing speed. Lower temperatures and faster rates of testing increase both the yield-point elongation and the yield-point stress. These matters have been ably discussed in a recent paper by Winlock and Leiter1 though, as brought out by the discussion of that paper, the phenomena are but little understood. The purpose of the present paper is to clarify the problem through the application of a simple principle, and to show that, through the application of this principle, a number of phenomena in the plastic deformation of metals become more readily understood. The principle is this: During homogeneous flow, the rate of work-hardening is greater than the rate of change of stress resulting from change

Jan 1, 1938

[ ]

Jan 1, 1938

By A. W. Furbank

IN reviewing the aerial cameras produced in different countries, it becomes apparent that in nearly all of them an attempt has been made to secure the greatest possible angle of view. This angle, of course, is determined by the objective. The objectives most commonly in use in aerial cameras have a maximum angle of 65°. The objective developed for this new Zeiss camera combines freedom from distortion and brilliant definition, with an angle of 95°. Aerial mapping, it is claimed, has been placed on a different economic basis, and new possibilities presented, par-ticularly in connection with automatic stereoscopic plotting instruments, to which some short references are made. One way of enlarging the angle of view is to couple several instruments with their axes convergent, thereby producing a multilens camera. Typi-cal of cameras of this sort in the United States is the Bagley four-lens camera, which later was developed into the five-lens camera (T3-A) of the U. S. Air Corps. More recently, in order to get away from the unfavorable Maltese cross image field of the five-lens camera, and to obtain a more practical form, two five-lens cameras were combined. By using them in tandem and rotating them by 45° relatively to each other, a ten-lens camera was produced, covering an octagonal ground area, with a total angle of view of 140°. Similar designs have been evolved in other countries. In all of them, however, a number of difficulties have arisen, quite apart from their large weight and high cost. Because of their complex mechanism, numerous shutters and magazines, and the high precision with which these parts must be interadjusted and synchronized, these cameras are far from dependable. Moreover, a multilens camera by itself does not yet constitute a complete outfit for producing pictures suitable for photogrammetric survey. Because all the component pictures, except the central one, are obliques, it is always necessary to employ rectifying apparatus which transforms the marginal views to the perspective of the central one. In multilens cameras with many individual magazines, it is not convenient to

Jan 1, 1938

By Donald Barton

Geophysical methods of prospecting taken as a whole do not seem to offer much promise to a young man planning to enter them in the future. They have come to stay, to be sure, and they will continue in at least moderate use for a long time. Domestic use of those methods presumably is at a maximum at the present time. Geophysical pros-pecting is expensive; the effects of the law of diminishing returns in efficiency in finding prospects can already, be recognized. Small oil companies, independent oil operators, and royalty buyers have been doing much geophysical work. But in face of the increasing costs of discovery of prospects and in face of the probably decreasing favorability of the prospects discovered, I expect to see a sharp drop in their use of geo-physics within the next 10 years. The major oil companies and the larger small oil companies will continue to use geophysics indefinitely, but it seems doubtful whether the very extensive domestic campaigns of a few companies will be maintained for many years, certainly not for 10 years. The use of the geophysical methods in foreign countries has not yet reached its peak, and probaby will continue to increase for several years. That peak level of activity will probably be held for 10 years, although the site of maximum activity will shift from country to country; by the end of 25 years from now, I should expect the foreign use of the methods to have leveled off to one-fourth to one-half the peak level. Foreign service in geophysics does not seem to offer an attractive career, except for men of exceptional disposition. Young men just out of college, who are willing and who can afford to spend three or four years having a fling at adventure before settling down, will find it attractive, but when their tour of foreign service is over, they probably will have harder work finding a job than when they were seniors, and their foreign experience will count for little, except for further foreign service. A few men, mainly the higher men, will have headquarters at civilized or semi-civilized cities and towns or at permanent oil-company towns, and can

Jan 1, 1938

By H. J. Hand

Statistical methods are becoming increasingly important for interpreting routine reports, or for analyzing special test data in industrial plants, such as steel plants. They have already become practically a necessity to the plant metallurgist. A paper by Chancellor, 1 written in 1933, gives many examples of the benefits the plant metallurgist can derive from the use of these methods. The present paper discusses applications of importance to many others who must analyze reports in the steel plant, as well as other examples of interest to metallurgists. Statistical Methods Logically Suited to Plant Problems.—Statistical methods are not new as a branch of mathematics. Until comparatively recently, however, practical applications were confined mainly to actuarial science, biology, and economics; fields in which an observed result is obviously influenced (and often determined) by a complicated set of variables more or less constantly tending to affect it. As pointed out by Daeves,2 a decade or more ago, problems in industry are basically similar to those in these other fields in that a given result is at least partly due to that chance combination of causes happening to be present at the time. When trying to do the same thing repeatedly, constant results are never attained; they vary about the desired result with more or less well defined mathematical regularity. Such a condition arises out of the great number of factors tending to affect the final result. If statistical methods are so valuable to the biologist or economist, why then should they not also be of great value to plant managers and engineers, and to all who must interpret reports from various sources in the industrial plant? Within the last few years, industry has become conscious of this situation, and the use of these methods has been rapidly expanding in such p1ants. Many Useful Statistical Devices Available.—Many statistical methods of attack are available for the analysis of plant data. It is the object of

Jan 1, 1938