Search Documents

By Allan E. Martin

As part of a comprehensive investigation of tie mechanism of desufurization of iron and steel by slags, the Blast Furnace Studies Section, Metallurgical Division, Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the Institute of Technology-, University of Minnesota, has made a study of the forms in which sulfur occurs in blast-furnace slag. This report presents data on the three sulfides most important in iron smelting, namely, ferrous sulfide, manganous sulfide, and calcium sulfide. The tendency of these sulfides to form colloids in the molten slag was determined by an examination of quenched samples with an ultramicroscope. Vogt5/ conducted experiments on sulfide silicate melts and examined synthetic blast-furnace slags in a partly crystallized condition. His conclusions were that FeS, CaS, and bins, or isomorphous compounds, such as (FexCay)S and (MnxCy)S, were precipitated Prom the melt, depending on the composition of the slag. In all specimens sulfides were visible and were spherical.

Jan 1, 1941

By Walter Kauzmann

All viscous or plastic flow of incompressible matter is the result of shear strain; the changing shape of any body that is being plastically deformed can be completely described in terms of the shear strain occurring at each point in the body.† Furthermore, the relative amounts of shear strain occurring in different parts of a body under stress depend upon the relative rates of shear strain at those different points, so that if the dependence of the shear rate of any material on the temperature, shear stress, previous history, etc., were understood, the principles of plastic deformation would be known, and we could calculate how a body made of a given material, having a given shape, and subject to a specified system of forces, would change its shape with time. It may be said, then, that the problem of plasticity resolves itself into, first, the problem of the rates of pure shear processes, and second, the application of what is known about pure shear to actual cases. It is the purpose of this work to investigate the former problem —i.e., the dependence of shear rates on temperature, stress, etc.—from the standpoint of .recent developments in the field of chemical-rate theory and with particular reference to the phenomena occurring in the creep of metals and in the plastic flow of crystalline solids in general. It is left for the mechanical engineer, and perhaps the expert in hydrodynamics, to deal with the problem of app1ications.l Resolution of Macroscopic Shear into Microscopic Movements; Resemblance to Chemical Reactions Just as any large body is made up of many small units, or atoms, so macro-scopically observable shear is the result of many microscopic unit shear processes; just as the understanding of the behavior of large bodies demands the understanding of the atoms of which it is made, so the understanding of macroscopic shear demands the understanding of these fundamental unit processes. The study of shear from this "atomistic" point of view has made considerable progress. There has been fairly complete understanding of shear processes in gases for a long time, at least for non-turbulent flow, as a chapter on gaseous viscosity in any text on the kinetic theory of gases will prove' In recent years Andrade2 and Eyring3 have presented important theories for the flow of liquids and amorphous solids. Becker14 Orowan,5 Taylor,6 Burgers,7 and Kanter8 have considered the plastic flow of crystalline solids from this

Jan 1, 1941

By Carl F. Floe, John Chipman

THE system molten copper-oxygen-sulphur is of interest from both the practical and theoretical standpoints; practically, because oxygen and sulphur play an important role in the commercial production of copper, and theoretically because it offers a chance to study the reaction between an oxide gas, SO2, and a molten metal. Reactions of this type, such as that between CO or C02 and molten iron, are important in many metallurgical operations. Again, the determination of any gas-metal equilibrium is of theoretical interest and value insofar as it contributes to the general development of the laws for solution of gases in metals. This problem is being given an increasing amount of attention in modem metallurgy. This paper is the first of a series and presents the results of a determination of the solubility of sulphur dioxide in molten copper at temperatures from 1100° to 1500°C., and pressures from about 20 mm. of mercury to somewhat above atmospheric. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK The solubility of gases in most liquids has been found to obey Henry's law, which states that for a fixed temperature the amount of gas dissolved is directly proportional to the pressure. However this law does not hold for liquid metals. Instead, it appears that for many gases, particularly the simple diatomic ones such as 02, N2 and H2, the amount dissolved in liquid metals is directly proportional to the square root of the pressure. This is known as Sieverts' law. It may be recognized as a special case of Henry's law, which applies when the solute gas is dissociated into atoms or when it reacts with the solvent metal to form solute molecules containing single atoms of the gaseous elements, as, for example: [2M -}-G2 = 2MGK =G) IYf X[I]] which, if the solubility is not too high and the concentration of metal therefore nearly constant, can be simplified to: [MG = Ki Pa,[2]] Following the same reasoning, it would be expected that the solubility of SO2 in copper would be proportional to the cube root of the pressure, the reaction being as follows: [6Cu + S02 = Cu2S + 2Cu20[3] K Cu2S X (Cu20)2(Cu)e(Psm)[4]] or, neglecting the change in metal concentration and considering that the concentrations of sulphur and oxygen are both proportional to the volume V of gas absorbed: [K1 =or Vdo,= K2/PBO [5] PsO]

Jan 1, 1941

By H. H. Schrenk

One phase of Bureau of lines work in health and safety is promotion of the use of safe, satisfactory, and reliable respiratory protective devices. To insure that devices embodying these features will be available the Bureau has established schedules of minimum requirements for oxygen breathing apparatus, gas masks4/, supplied-air respirators (hose mask, air-line respirators, and abrasive blasting helmet hoods, or masks)5/, and dispersoid (dust, fume and mist) respirators6/. Approval test, of oxygen¬-breathing apparatus are conducted by the Safety Division; approval tests of other types of respiratory protective equipment are conducted by the Health Division. These divisions comprise the Health and Safety Branch.

Jan 1, 1941

By Thomas T. Read

MINING, which is at least twenty centuries old, was at first, and long, wholly a practical art. Little more than two centuries have elapsed since the inception of the idea that general education and a knowledge of natural science would be of advantage to those engaged in the mining industry. Though schools of mining began to develop in Europe early in the eighteenth century the concept of educational preparation for technical conduct of the industry was slow in winning general acceptance in the industry itself. John Hays Hammond, in his autobiography, recalls that when he sought employment with a mining company after he had graduated from Yale and Freiberg he had to assure its executive, before being even considered for employment, that he did not consider that he had learned anything about mining. This was as late as 1880. Existence in the industry of a prejudice against education of the academic type is perhaps an explanation why inadequate provision has been made by the mining industry for the continuing education of technical employees after they enter employment, although engineering education prior to engaging in industry has now won general acceptance. I am familiar with the existence of "loop" courses for engineering graduates in metallurgical plants, of schemes for giving mining graduates "practical experience," and of the interest in vocational courses for workmen which sprang up in the period of labor shortage during and immediately following World War I (but which quickly died when the depression of 1921 again made experienced workmen available in sufficient supply), having been chairman of a committee appointed by the Mineral Industry Education Division to make a survey of existing provisions for post-employment training for engineers in our industry. The results of that survey, reported elsewhere, dearly indicate that it is inadequate as to amount; the aim of this paper is to present evidence for belief that it is also inadequate in quality. To avoid becoming too involved, no reference will be made here to post-employment vocational training for workmen, which is a subject differing so much from post-employment education for engineers as to require separate treatment. Neither will postgraduate education for metallurgical engineers be discussed, because a distinction must then be made between training for research work and for plant operation, whereas mining engineers engage almost exclusively in operations. Since the situation in the coal-mining industry has been discussed at several recent meetings, that also will be passed over, and what follows should be taken as a discussion applying exclusively to the metal-mining industry. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT In the operations field (both in mining and metallurgy) the work to which a beginner is assigned is seldom closely related to previous academic- education. The contrast is almost as great as between

Jan 1, 1941

By Harry H. Angst, Reuel A. Cochrane

THE successful exploitation by opencut methods of the low-grade porphyry copper deposits is due to the economical handling of large tonnages. Large tonnages are possible only if the rock material is broken so that the large power shovels can operate with minimum delays. This is particularly true at the New Cornelia mine, where the dense, hard, tough rock material creates problems not encountered in most of the porphyry copper mines. The introduction of churn drills at the New Cornelia for primary drilling, in 1936, necessitated a complete change in the methods of breaking ground as formerly air drills had been used. The blasting operations are of particular interest because of the handling of great quantities of high explosives in safely and efficiently fragmenting the hard rock material. ROCK FORMATIONS At the New Cornelia mine the rocks are quartz monzonite with a diorite border facies intruding a rhyolitic series. Overlying these formations is a fanglomerate formation composed of boulders of monzonite, diorite, rhyolite, and other types of rock of unknown derivation. (The word "fanglomerate" is used in this paper in referring to the local conglomerate type of rock formations.) The ore body is approximately 4800 ft. long and 2800 ft. wide, and is of the disseminated type. Mineralization occurs principally the quartz monzonite and to some extent in the adjacent diorite and rhyolite. The principal ore minerals are chalcopyrite, bornite, and a small amount of chalcocite. Over a considerable area the quartz monzonite is extremely hard and siliceous in character, owing to pegmatitic zones of alteration. The hardness of the ground depends on the intensity of the silicification. In a small area in-the pit, the monzonite contains an abundance of pyrite accompanied by sericitization and is soft and easily fragmented. This is true also in the remaining oxidized portion of the ore body. The diorite and rhyolite formations, like the monzonite, vary from extremely hard to very soft material, but on the whole are easier to fragment than the monzonite. jointing is prevalent in all the rock formations and plays an important role in the blasting efficiencies. In the fanglomerate formation, numerous well-defined joints, widely spaced, tend to make the ground blocky when blasted. This is a deterrent to good fragmentation. In the other rocks the joints are more numerous and are closely spaced, except in localized areas where the formations are extremely hard. These descriptions indicate that the lowest blasting efficiency will be obtained in the harder formations, from which the major portion of the mine production is obtained; namely, the monzonite and rhyolite. All rock formations mined at the New Cornelia pit are so hard that excavation

Jan 1, 1941

By K. E. Stanfield

[Asphalt ~~d road oil ar8 the principal products manufactured from Wyor.1in~ Ilblack oilo" \r,hich, beca.use of th?lir hig.~ E\.sphal t and hig} sulfur COi.1Jce~1t, .!?re difficult e':ld costly to refine into hi?;h-gra.de motor f 101s, burning oils. and lucri ants by presont mothods. Accordin~ly. the demand for truHle asphaltic renidl urn for the construction of roade aJ1.d other uses is 3. controlling factor in the quantity of crud~ oil prod ICed. The increasiilg -u.tilization of special aST>ha.lts as ine}""Pensive bonding, in-]

Jan 1, 1941

By D. K. Crampton, H. I. Burghoff, J. T. Stacy

The effect of cold-working upon electrical conductivity of copper and of copper alloys appears not to be generally known in detail. Although several papers on the subject have been presented, showing variable effects according to alloy composition, it is often assumed that the 2 to 3 per cent lowering of the conductivity of ordinary tough-pitch copper by severe cold-working is typical for copper alloys. Because of this situation it was decided to carry out the present work upon several types of copper, copper-zinc alloys over the commercial range of brasses, other binary alloys, and numerous age-hardening alloys in the quenched, and quenched and aged conditions. The large number of alloys investigated made it impossible to study every one in the detail it may have merited. Inasmuch as several interesting points that could not be satisfactorily explained came to light, further work is contemplated by the authors. It is usually considered that the normal effect of cold-work on ductile metals and unordered alloys is to decrease conductivity slightly. In alloys that are in the ordered state, as annealed or otherwise heat-treated, cold--working tends to disorder the structure, resulting in very marked lowering of conductivity. The random state of atomic arrangement produces lower con- ductivity than the ordered state for the same composition.1 Previous Work Previous work in the authors' laboratory has shown the electrical conductivity of several copper alloys to be decreased by greater amounts than might have been expected, in view of the general knowledge on the subject, when cold-worked. Guillet and Ballay2 investigated the influence of cold-work upon the resistivity of several metals and alloys, including copper and some copper alloys. The increase of resistivity due to severe working w is less than 4 per cent for all pure metals tested, while the increases for the alloys were generally higher. In the copper-zinc alloys, they found that the increase of resistance due to drawing increased with zinc content, and reported a 21.7 per cent increase of resistance for an alloy contaiiiing 67.9 per cent Cu as severely worked. Masima and Sachs3 studied the change in electrical resistance of three brass crystals when stretched in the tensile test, obtaining increases in resistance of the order of 3 per cent for 30 to 40 per cent reduction of area of the specimens. The resistance decreased again when the cold-worked crystals were subsequently annealed. Bardenheuer and Schmidt4 found that the conductivity of copper was decreased by 3 to 4 per cent when reduced 50 per cent by working. The conductivity of 72-28

Jan 1, 1941

By Thomas T., Read

TWO American students entered the Ecole des Mines in 1856, Joseph Lesley of Philadelphia and Thomas Egleston of New York. Lesley remained there only one year, but Egleston completed the whole 'curriculum and received, in 1860, the certificate given to foreign students .in lieu of the official appointment and degree. awarded French students. Returning home he received, in 1861, an appointment by Secretary Henry of the Smithsonian Institution to sort, label, and arrange the collections of mineralogical and geological specimens which had been brought to Washington by the various government exploring expeditions in the West. Thomas Egleston, born in New York City on Dec. 9, 1832, was the son of Thomas Jefferson Egleston, who came to New York from Massachusetts some time before 1829. The first American ancestor of the family had settled near Dorchester. in 1630. T. J. Egleston and Joseph Battell established an iron-merchandizing business* at 166 South St., New, York, which prospered exceedingly; so much so that when Thomas J. Egleston died, July 12, 1861, his estate had a book value of over $500,000. Since an older brother was expected eventually to take over this business, Thomas, who had a liking for science, went to Yale,, where he completed the regular four-year course in 1854, and then remained another year for advanced work in chemistry under Silliman. I One biographer says he went to Europe, . early in 1-856, on account of his health. It was the custom at that time for wealthy young men to make a tour of Europe after completing their academic education. Whatever the precise reason, he began scientific work at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris but soon trans* It still operating as Egleston Bros. Inc., though no direct descendants of its founder are now living.

Jan 1, 1941

By R. L. Grant

[Detonators are used to explode permissible explosives, dynamites, or other high explosives. This explosion or detonation is brought about by the energy which is liberated as a combination of concussion and heat when the detonator is fired. In Other words; "The detonator is the key which unlocks the energy of a high explosive" (8)4. Being sensitive and latently dangerous, detonators must meet two primary requirements: They must be safe to handle and must detonate when desired, thereby imparting detonation to the explosive charge.]

Jan 1, 1941

Jan 1, 1941

By Albert A. Smith

The creep properties of metals have assumed increasing importance in recent years and many investigations have been made on various phases of the problem. In the past year the annual lectures of the Institute of Metals Division1 and the Iron and Steel Division2 were concerned with this subject, and are excellent reviews. For many years the creep properties of lead and lead alloys have been investigated at the Central Research Laboratories of the American Smelting and Refining Co., and it is hoped that the present paper will contribute knowledge of some of the factors that influence creep. Lead, being a metal that recrys-tallizes readily at room temperature, is an excellent material upon which to investigate creep phenomena because of the simplicity of the apparatus needed, and it might be expected that results would apply to some extent to elevated-temperature tests of other metals. Material The creep tests of this investigation were all made on high-purity lead (99.9998+ Pb) in which the only impurity that could be detected by spectrographic and chemical means was approximately 0.0001 per cent Fe. Flat strips, 0.750 in. wide by 0. 100 in. thick, were prepared by extruding 2-in. dia. cast billets at a temperature of 250°C. This gave a material of 2 to 3 mm. average grain size with a tensile strength of j.400 lb. per sq. in. when tested at a straining rate of 5 per cent per minute. With this extremely soft material, great care was necessary in handling the specimens, to avoid distortion and subsequent recrystallization. The creep tests at 30°C. were conducted in a constant-temperature room, specially built for the purpose in the basement of an office building in which there was no moving machinery, and no vibration was detectable under the most severe conditions of shock in the adjacent surroundings. The room was well insulated and heated electrically, control being by means of a de Khotinsky regulator operating a relay. Maximum temperature variation over a period of several years has been ± 1/2°C. Specimens of the extruded strip, 16 in. long, were used for test purposes with no reduced gauge section, thus eliminating any distortion due to machining. The method of clamping and supporting the specimens is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1. The gauge marker for the measurement of extension consisted of an aluminum strip, 0.050 in. thick by 0.75 in. wide, one end of which was ground and sanded to a precise knife-edge and fastened to the specimen by suitable pins. After the strip was fastened in place a fine scratch was inscribed just below the knife-edge by means of a sharp teasing needle. Just below this gauge scratch a short vertical mark was made so that the same point could be located and read each time. Several hundred specimens have been prepared by this method, and it was found that with experi-

Jan 1, 1941

By Harry H. Power

WHILE the attention of all engineering branches is focused today on changes and improvements in the several curricula, we are concerned here with the many questions arising in industry and college concerning the preparation for the petroleum engineering profession. The succession of problems confronting the petroleum engineer demands a degree of versatility not ordinarily encountered in other professions. As a consequence, the student cannot acquire mastery of all the several engineering branches represented in field practice, and as an alternative, he has learned to appreciate the value of thorough training in the basic or fundamental sciences as a preliminary foundation for professional work. While our attention is directed primarily to the training of engineers in educational institutions, it is necessary that the ultimate education of the professional engineer be kept in mind. It is apparent that his success as an engineer is limited not only by his educational and job experience, but by his native endowments: mentality, personality and health. The engineer's lack of job experiences often proves as much a handicap as the lack of adequate college training. If the final product proves to be satisfactory, both industry and technical institutions are to be congratulated. However, if the product is found wanting, the one most responsible should be apprehended. FITNESS FOR PROFESSION For the most part, students of engineering colleges have had their interests in applied science awakened at a relatively early age. Many of them entered college as a convenient means of acquiring a technical education, but undoubtedly would have had better prospects in a shorter program offered by institutions of noncollege grade. The activating motive of practical interest is also strong in students suitable for college training, but in many cases an intellectual interest must be awakened in order that it may survive graduation. Numerous engineers believe that this progressive process of selection and determination of career aims is one of the essential services rendered by the engineering colleges. Industrialists, who are more interested in quality than quantity of petroleum engineering graduates, have pointed out the good that should result if more empha¬sis were given to the work of eliminating the misfits. They also point out the protective measures that have been taken by other professions for the betterment of professional standards. Mention has been made of the beneficial results to be obtained by collective determination of the market for the products of engineering schools, particularly in that the students unsuited to the profession would have an opportunity to prepare themselves for employment more suited to their personalities and other qualifications. In the event that such a system of coordinated personnel direction is developed by the

Jan 1, 1941

By Harry H. Power

While the attention of all engineering branches is focused today on changes and improvements in the several curricula, we are concerned here with the many questions arising in industry and college concerning the preparation for the petroleum engineering profession. The succession of problems confronting the petroleum engineer demands a degree of versatility not ordinarily encountered in other professions. As a consequence, the student cannot acquire mastery of all the several engineering branches represented in field practice, and as an alternative, he has learned to appreciate the value of thorough training in the basic or fundamental sciences as a Preliminary foundation for professional work. While our attention is directed primarily to the training of engineers in educational institutions, it is necessary that the ultimate education of the professional engineer be kept in mind. It is apparent that his success as an engineer is limited not only by his educational and job experience, but by his native endowments: mentality, Personality and health. The engineer's lack of job experiences often proves as much a handicap as the lack of adequate college training. If the final product proves to be satisfactory, both industry and technical institutions are to be congratulated. However, if the Product is found wanting, the one most responsible should For the most part, students of engineering colleges have had their interests in applied science awakened at a relatively early age. Manyof them entered college as a convenient means of acquiring a technical education, but undoubtedly would have had better prospects in a shorter program offered by institutions of non-college grade. The activating motive of practical interest is also strong in students suitable for college training, but in many cases an intellectual interest must be awakened in order that it may survive graduation. Numerous engineers believe that this progressive process of selection and determination of career aims is one of the essential services rendered by the engineering colleges. Industrialists, who are more inter. ested in quality than quantity of petroleum engineering graduates, have pointed out the good that should result if more emphasis were given to the work of eliminating the misfits. They also point out the protective measures that have been taken by other professions for the betterment of professional standards. Mention has been ,de of the beneficial results to be obtdned by collective determination of the market for the products of engineering schools, particularly in that the students unsuited to the profession would have an opportunity to prepare themselves for employment more suited to their personalities and other qualifications. In the event that such a system of coordinated personnel direction is developed by the

Jan 1, 1941

By Theron Wasson

No major oil-field discoveries were made County; the second in Marion township, in Michigan during the year 1940. Produc- Osceola County. Both are producing from tion for the year was maintained by the Stray sand at about 1350 ft. These discoveries made in 1938 and, as a result, is fields are on structures founci by core test-below the total for 1939. Several extensions ing through the glacial drift. The Six Lakes to old fields have been made, which have field, Montcalm County, discovered in helped to maintain production in the face 1934, is Michigan's largest gas-producing of rather rapid decline in the fields of the field. it has 195 wells producing from the southwestern part of the state. Important Michigan Stray sandstone and the Upper extensions were made in Overisel, Porter, Marshall sandstone. This field was devel-Sherman, and Adams fields. Important oil oped on a 40-acre spacing plan, and gas fields of the state are shown on the -map, Fig. I. WiI~dcat Drilling Michigan's production of 19,700,000 bbl. A test in sec. 29, Winterfield township, during 1940 was 3,800,000 bbl. less than Clare County, which is producing oil from the total for 1939, but about one million the Monroe of Devonian age at a depth of greater than 1938. This brings the total 3760 ft., and a well in sec. 31, Lincoln accumulated production for the state to a township, Osceola County, producing from little over 145,000,000 bbl. the Monroe at 3625 it., should be classed as wildcats that are sure to lead to further Active Oil Fields development in I94L The leading producer for the year was the At the end of the year the Gulf Refining Temple field, Clare County, where 29 new Company's deep test on the Kawkawlin wells were drilled. The Walker field, Kent structure in Monitor township, Bay County, was second, but drilled 183 new County, was preparing to drill deeper after wells in order to gain that position. In the having had a gas blowout from a depth of extension of the Overisel field in Allegan 7775 ft. This test is the most important one County, 115 new producers were drilled. drilling at the end of the year in Michigan, The Adams field, Arenac County, was for should it develop commercial produc- revived by several wells with initial production from deeper beds it will lead to deeper tions of over 1000 bbl. per day from the drilling on many well-known structures Dundee of Devonian age. that have been producing from shallower sands. Active Gas Fields Two important gas fields were discovered Exploration by Taggart Brothers during the year. The A small amount of reflection seismograph first was in Riverside township, Missaukee work was done in Clare, Osceola, and Glad-Win Counties during the year. Exploration Manuscript received at the office of the Institute March 28 1941 by shallow drilling for structural informa- tion on beds below the glacial drift con- 347

Jan 1, 1941

By M. Muskat, H. H. Evinger

ALTHOUGH the shooting of oil wells for the purpose of increasing production has been practiced since 1866, present-day shooting technique has been arrived at almost wholly by a process of trial and error. The difficulties attending either a theoretical analysis of the problem or an experimental attack become apparent when one actually embarks on a theoretical investigation or attempts to formulate an intelligent experimental program. The literature on the subject consists mainly of descriptions of current practice, scattered eye-witness accounts of events following the shooting of a well, and vague speculations on the mechanical processes involved. In contrast to quarry blasting, the results of oil-well shooting cannot be determined by means of visual inspection, and it is perhaps for this reason that only one attempt at what approaches a direct experimental attack has been reported in the literature.1 In these experiments, charges of liquid nitroglycerin were exploded in holes drilled in a sandstone outcrop. In order to observe the character and extent of the resulting fractures, the rock was blasted away so as to expose the original shot holes. After all this had been done it was found impossible to distinguish the fracturing due to the original shots from that due to the subsequent blasting. The enlargement of the holes due to the pulverizing action of the shots was. measured and an attempt was made to determine the effectiveness of 'sand tamping. Only five shots were made and few definite conclusions could be drawn. Some small-scale experiments to determine the effect of tamping were performed by Snelling and Hall,2 Small charges (20 grams) of dynamite were detonated at the bottom of a cylindrical hole in a lead block and the resulting enlargement of the hole was taken as a measure of the effectiveness of the explosion. It was found that when the shot was tamped with a sufficient amount of sand or clay, the volume enlargement was approximately double that found when no stemming had been used. The properties of the explosives have been the subject of much study by the manufacturers, the U. S. Bureau of Mines, and various other agencies. For example, velocities of detonation for many commercial explosives are to be found in the Blasters' Handbook, issued by the Du Pont company. Many other properties are given in a treatise on the subject by Naoum.3 The shock wave that accompanies the detonation of high explosives has been studied photographically by Payman4 and others. The hydrodynamical theory of the shock wave has received much attention, and an extended theoretical treatment is given by Bateman.5 Two aspects of the well-shooting problem will be considered in this paper; namely, the fracturing of subsurface strata, and possible damage to casing. With respect to the former of these, several calculations have been made giving the stresses in the rocks surrounding the shot. In order to arrive at numerical results at all, however, it is necessary to introduce a great many simplifying

Jan 1, 1941

By H. W. Hindry

This paper presents the ingredients com-~osing a type of oil-base mud that has been successfully used in drilling oil horizons in California, the effect of ingredient concentrations on physical properties, methods of handling at the well and possible advantages of a waterless drilling fluid with excellent plastering properties. Introduction An oil-base mud is a rotary drilling fluid in which oil has been substituted for water as the principal liquid ingredient. In recent years such a mud has been developed and used successfully for drilling the oil horizons of wells in various Calilornia fields. There are several types of oil-base mud, but only the type that is currently used to any appreciable extent will be considered at this time. The oil-base drilling-mud compositions used by Shell Oil Company, Incorporated have been covered by several patent applications on which patents are expected to issue at an early date. The purpose of this paper is to present data on the fundamental design of the mud; the ingredients used and their specifications; the effect of ingredient concentration on physical properties; the selection of the proper mud; the facilities needed for handling the mud; and a general discussion on drilling with oil-base mud. In view of the early stage of development of oil-base mud, the great number of vari- ables, and the almost unlimited possible combinations of these. variables, which in turn require extensive laboratory study, there are certain irregularities and omis. sions in the data presented here. However, it is believed that sufficient data are at hand to permit a fairly complete analysis of the characteristics of oil-base muds. In view of the excellent plastering properties of oil-base mud when properly proportioned, its use should: (I) minimize the possibility of impairing the natural flow potentialities of the producing horizon such as that resulting from infiltration of water from water-base muds; (2) permit smaller clearances for setting liners, since the mud sheath has no appreciable thickness; (3) eliminate the possibility of clogging the perforations of the liner with thick mud sheath; (4) facilitate the removal of the mud sheath from the walls of the hole, for its mud sheath has no appreciable strength; (5) assist in drilling through formations, such as "heaving shale," where water wetting appears to be a source of difficulty. (6) permit cores to be obtained without contamination from drilling water. Fundamental Design of an Oil-base Mud In the design of any rotary drilling mud it is necessary to select materials that will fulfill the following requirements: (I) act as the liquid medium and regulate the viscosity; (2) impart initial and final plastering properties; (3) give gel strength and structure in order to prevent settling; (4) serve as a weighting material. The

Jan 1, 1941

By G. W. Jones

[A survey of the Ii terature reJ.l....ting to iE;li tion temperatures of acet-ylene-air and acetylene-oxygen mixtures reveals rather '.'fide disagreement in the reported results. In SO!':1e instances the i ition temperatures of acet?-ylene-air mixtures were reported to be lower than those of acetylene-oTjgan mixtlU'es, which is contrary to experience 'tri th other combustibles. ':10 clea.r up some of t!le reported discrepancies, the authorn have icvestigated the igni tion temperatures of acetylene both in air anri oxygen, and their results are presented in this report.]

Jan 1, 1941

By William A. Longacre

IN a previous paper1 the author discussed the problem described by the title of this paper, outlining and reviewing the Gish-Rooney method, with comparison and brief analysis of the interpretation techniques of Roman2 and Tagg.3 Some aspects of the simple type of two-layer system were reviewed from various sources.4,5,6 THE TWO-LAYER PROBLEM For the configuration shown in Fig. I, and for any electrode separation A, the apparent resistivity is a function of the relative depth [HA], the overburden resistivity pi, and a factor K defined by the equation [ ] where p2 is the resistivity of the lower bed, Thus, by the known theory of electrical images, [ ] THE MULTILAYER PROBLEM As the number of isotropic, homogeneous, horizontal layers increases, the difficulties of interpretation multiply. The theory becomes much more involved, and in view of the state of our knowledge, the general problem is virtually impossible of exact solution. However, certain types of [ ] multilayer problems can be worked out in terms of two-layer theory. Hummel,7 Pirson,8 Tagg,3 Watson,9 and others have pointed out the possibility of building up approximations of multilayer resistivity curves with suitable combinations of two-layer curves. Many three-layer curves can be constructed in this way to a good degree of accuracy, and special types of four-layer curves can be approximated. It is very likely that as the number of layers increases, the method of combination will not give good approximations except in very special cases, In the analysis of actual field data, the author has found that many obviously multilayer curves can be solved partially with a good degree of accuracy, using the theory that thin adjacent beds may be considered as one layer or zone, and applying two-layer theory to the extremities of the field curve. MODIFIED TAGG METHOD OF INTERPRETATION Tagg's second method, though superior to his first, necessitates a large number

Jan 1, 1941

By J. B. Clemmer

This report summarizes the results of u laboratory study of the beneficiation of Arkansas bauxite by flotation. Although the investigation is not yet completed, a preliminary retort of the results on several typical bauxites is presented to show the merits rind limitations of flotation for the production of concentrates acceptable to the aluminum industry. It is

Jan 1, 1941