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By John A. Fagnant

At Elkol, Wyo., about 80 miles northeast of Ogden, Utah, the Kemmerer Coal Co. and the Utah Power and Light Co. are involved in a joint venture that will soon see 1 million tons of coal going "out by wire" to Ogden. Kemmerer, owner of a multi-seam strip mine, and the utility, now building a steam power plant adjacent to the mine site, expect to begin initial power generation by February 1963. Although capable of producing only 150,000 kw at that time, this plant is expected to be ultimately enlarged to 500,000-kw capacity which will require about 2 million tons of coal annually. The deposit consists of more than 30 seams of coal, usually varying in thickness from 2 to 40 ft, and separated by beds of sandstones and shales. In certain areas the aggregate thickness of all the coal seams measures 300 ft. The thickest and most spectacular of these seams is the lowest one, referred to as the No. 1 seam, which is 118 ft thick in some places.

Jan 8, 1962

By E M. Wightman, C L. Evans

A recent survey of mineral processors undertaken as part of the International Mineral Processing Council (IMPC) Education Commission identified mineralogy as one of the key skills required for mineral processors (the other key areas being comminution, flotation, physical separation, sampling and extractive metallurgy). Past experience in a number of operations has shown what can be achieved when the data outputs from mineralogical tools are coupled with people with the right skills who can transform the data into actionable information. This paper reviews what has been done successfully in plant operations over a period of more than four decades and gives examples of a range of applications with both long and short-term objectives. The examples demonstrate the usefulness of mineralogical data – both basic and complex – in optimising mineral processing operations, whether the data are applied in a simple analysis or in more complex modelling. Similarly, the examples show the range of options available for operations to access the mineralogy information they need – through in-house experts and equipment based in centralised technology centres, through on-site equipment and experts or through external laboratories and consultants.The examples from industry highlight the huge potential benefit of including mineralogy as an integral part of operational best practice and raise the question of why more operations do not utilise what should be readily available data. Successful application of mineralogical data requires skilled people to generate relevant data of the required quality, together with skilled people to interpret the data (this may be the same person). And, as in any project, corporate recognition of the value of this approach to best practice is required to ensure continuing support. With fewer university courses providing courses in process mineralogy to undergraduate mineral processing engineers and chemical engineers, there is an increasing lack of knowledge about what mineralogical information is needed, how to get the required data and, equally importantly, how to turn the data into useful information.CITATION:Evans, C L and Wightman, E M, 2018. Understanding minerals in mineral processing – the basics and beyond, in Proceedings 14th AusIMM Mill Operators' Conference 2018, pp 363–376 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Aug 29, 2018

By J. G. Walters

In a survey of the coking properties of United States coals, the Bureau of Mines has accumulated data on more than 500 coals and blends tested by the Bureau of Mines-American Gas Association (BM-AGA) method.4/ The importance of these tests depends upon the fact that a greater number of different coals has been tested in this apparatus than in any other of similar scale, thus permitting comparison of the carbonizing properties of many coals. Evaluation of BM-AGA results with respect to industrial data supplied by member firms of the American Gas Association was one of the first objectives in developing this test apparatus and procedure. Early data showed that, de-pendent upon BM-AGA carbonizing temperature, BM-AGA and commercial results agree closely.5/ Because of limited data, statistical relationships were not established at that time.

Jan 1, 1959

By Gus Van Weert

Solvent extraction of iron from zinc refinery liquors has been investigated before, mainly on the MEHPA / HC1 stripping combination. Leakage of chloride into the zinc electrolyte and the costs of handling the ferric chloride eluate have prevented this option from being adopted. This work explores the stripping of the ferric loaded organic phase with nitric acid to take advantage of the possibility of regenerating up to 6N nitric acid, and clean spheroidal hematite production by autoclave treatment of ferric nitrate solution. The work was carried out with DEHPA (di 2-ethyl-hexyl phosphoric acid) in kerosine. Degradation testing proved the DEHPA to be very stable, when exposed to nitric acid solutions up to 6N and temperatures up to 70" C over a period of five days. Ferric iron was removed completely froma synthetic hot acid leach liquor, irrespective of the DEHPA concentration. Stripping the ferric turned out to be the problematic step. Although the stripping efficiency was considerable better at 50 than at 20° C, it decreased with increasing DEHPA/Fe ration in the organic phase. Eluates of no more than 5-10 g/l ferric nitrate were produced. surprisingly, nitric acid was found to be a less efficient stripping agent than sulphuric at equivalent normality and its efficacy levelled off above 4N. It was concluded that DEHPA does not appear to be the S.X. reagent to take advantage of the low cost autoclave decomposition of ferric nitrate opportunity in zinc hydrometallurgy and that another S.X. reagent, also resistant to nitric acid, but based on weaker compound formation is needed.

Jan 1, 1998

By Vicki Tschirhart, Bill Morris, McMaster University

A new method for mapping faults within basement rocks underlying the Thelon Formation and glacial overburden was developed and tested in the Aberdeen Sub-basin. This method utilizes newly acquired aeromagnetic data, the Blakely algorithm for defining magnetic source edges, a calculated dip-direction map, a digital elevation model (DEM) derived from the Canadian Digital Elevation Database, and the positions of identified, inferred and newly mapped faults that are within and adjacent to this sub-basin. Combining these data revealed three age groups of faults. One group is seen only on the DEM; these faults are young brittle structures that have no effect on the sub-Thelon basement unconformity, and are not visible on the dip direction map. A second group is evident on the dip direction map but not the DEM; these faults are old basement structures that did not propagate upward through the Thelon Formation. The third group is expressed on both the DEM and dip direction map; these faults are also old structures that propagated upward during and/or after deposition of the Thelon Formation. The latter group of faults may be of greatest interest for uranium exploration, with reactivation increasing their potential to serve as conduits to transport uranium-rich fluids and focus deposition at or near the unconformity surface. This methodology has promise for comprehensive mapping of basin faults and tracking the tectonic development of the whole Thelon Basin through time.

Jan 1, 2013

By J. P. P. Silva

Sodium silicate (water glass) is a modifier reagent widely used in flotation with the function of a depressant or dispersant. The interaction between sodium silicate and mineral surfaces is still not well understood. This investigation aimed to illuminate the sodium silicate action mechanism as a depressant in the flotation of the minerals quartz and calcite. The experiments were done with high-purity mineral samples in the particle size range below 147 µm. The microflotation tests in a modified Hallimond tube showed that, in all systems tested, the efficiency of sodium silicate increased with the concentration. At concentrations above 1,500 g/t, almost total depression (96% for calcite and 97% for quartz) was achieved. The variation of sodium silicate modulus did not alter the quartz flotation performance in the presence of amine (150 g/t). The most efficient depression pH range was observed between 5 and 8. Above pH 10, the depressant action of sodium silicate was negligible. The infrared spectra obtained at pH 7 after silicate contact showed the presence of the groups OH and Si-OH, both suggesting that the adsorption of the neutral species Si(OH)4, as well as siloxane groups (Si-O-Si), attributed to adsorption of polymeric species. Sharing electron pairs is the proposed adsorption mechanism between Si(OH)4 and polymeric species and the surface sites (Si-O on quartz and Ca-O on calcite). At pH 11, the electrostatic repulsion prevents the species adsorption, impairing the sodium silicate action.

By Frederick Prime

THE Great or Cumberland Valley, which (under a variety of names) extends from Canada, through Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and East Tennessee, to Alabama, is composed in part of limestones lying immediately above the Potsdam sandstone. Geologically, they belong to the era between the Potsdam and Trenton, and are commonly termed Calciferous. A peculiarity of these limestones is their great richness in limonite or brown hematite ores, which form a large part of the charges of the many blast-furnaces situated on their outcrops. The mines from which the ores are obtained are (properly speaking) only pits or quarries, from which the ore is extracted by means of picks or shovels, powder being rarely employed. The ore does not occur casually at any point in the limestone, but forms regular lines, following apparently the 'outcrops of certain beds. In Lehigh County, Penn., where I have been engaged on the Geological Survey of' the State, during the past season, there are three or four of these lines. During the progress of the survey I was much struck by the fact that the two most important and promising lines of outcrop were, one at the base of the crystalline schists (forming the South or Lehigh Mountain), and overlying the Potsdam sandstone conformably; the other, near the line of junction of the calciferous limestone with the slates of the Cincinnati epoch. The mines along these two lines, following the topography of the country, were in place, richer and more permanent than those of the belts between, which were generally leaner. A peculiarity of these two lines of outcrop, and one to which I particularly desire to draw attention, is the occurrence of what I at first mistook for a highly altered slaty limestone, but which subsequent analysis proved to consist in great part of damourite (hydrated potash mica). The following are analyses of this damourite slate I. From Fogelsville, Lehigh County, within a few hundred feet of the contact of limestone and slate, by Dr. F. A. Genth. II. From Hensingerville, Lehigh County, within 300 feet of gneiss, by Mr. Sydney Castle, of the University of Pennsylvania. III. From Allentown, Lehigh County, within 150 feet of con-

Jan 1, 1875

By Joseph T. Singewald

AMONG the genetically interesting iron ores of the United States are those of the St. Francis Mountains near Ironton and Iron Mountain, Missouri. They are specular hematite in porphyry. The Iron Mountain and Shepherd Mountain deposits are generally spoken of as veins and those of Pilot Knob, Cedar Hill, and Russell Mountain as bedded deposits. Iron Mountain has produced nearly 4,000,000 tons of ore and Pilot Knob about 1,500,000 tons. The output of the other three localities has been insignificant. Pilot Knob is no longer worked as an iron mine, but the rock is now being crushed for use as road metal. Iron Mountain has continued as an active producer. In 1927, the property was acquired by the M. A. Hanna Co. and an extensive prospecting and exploration campaign was undertaken, so that the ultimate production of Iron Mountain will doubtless greatly exceed the figures mentioned. Previous Theories of Origin Descriptions of the deposits and theories of their origin have been concerned mainly with Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob, which represent the two contrasting types of occurrence. The Iron Mountain deposits have been considered of close magmatic origin by Whitney' in 18.54, Geijer2 in 1915, and Spurr3 in 1927. Whitney referred to them as of eruptive origin. Geijer considered them fissure fillings at magmatic temperatures. Spurr called them vein dikes formed from ore magma which was essentially fluid iron oxide. Schmidt4 in 1872 ascribed them to fissure filling by thermal chalybeate waters of meteoric origin. Nason5 in 1892 advanced essentially the same explanation. One of the best

Jan 1, 1929

By I. J. Jansen

Successful soil construction involves preparation of an adequate base, selection of high quality soil materials, and placement of those materials by means which will establish a continuous macropore network and modest to low soil strength. Where such has been accomplished, experiments reveal row crop productivity on reclaimed land which is very competitive with that on undisturbed land. Inferior productivity and sensitivity to drought stress are experienced where the soils are excessively compacted during construction. Some deep tillage practices have been quite successful in improving the compacted soils, but it is preferable to avoid compaction as the soil materials are handled.

Jan 1, 1987

By H. Lind

The consumption rate of Estonian oil shale increases due to the growing rate of exported oil-shale oil. Estonian oil shale active resources in working mines are predicted until the year of 2025 when the consumption rate stays at the level of 12 tons per year. If the consumption rate stays at that level, new mines should be opened after 20 years, if the rate increases new mines should be opened even earlier. The predicted active resources in Estonian oil shale deposits are calculated for 60 years, based on the parameters of the power station technicoeconomics. As a result, there is a need to open new mines. One of the potential areas for surface mine is the Tammiku-Kose prospect area (Rheinbaun Engineering, 1996).

Jan 1, 2006

By R. Mohan Srivastava

"The goal of estimation is considered in the light of decision analysis. A simple example reveals the essential elements of decision-making in the face of uncertainty. A second example shows that these elements are also key features of many mining decisions. These two examples cause us to revive an old probabilistic notion that the goal of estimation should be to quantify what is unknown. The conditional probability distribution provides the complete statement of one's uncertainty. Once the conditional probability distribution has been established, one should retain as an estimate the value which minimizes some objective loss function. A third example shows how the ""best"" estimate depends on the chosen loss function. Current practice is almost exclusively based on the least squares method, which assumes a loss function which penalizes underestimation and overestimation equally. This is unfortunate not only because symmetry is an unrealistic assumption but also because mining offers a rare opportunity to state the loss function directly in terms of profitability. Both the theoretical framework and the practical tools exist to allow us to reconsider the conventional notion of the ""best"" estimate. IntroductionThis paper looks at estimation in the mining industry from the point-of-view of decision analysis. Virtually all decisions depend on estimates since few of the important parameters are ever known exactly. In this paper we will be referring mainly to the estimation of ore grades, though the approach discussed here is generally applicable to any decision in which relevant information is uncertain.In the first section we look at a very simple example of decision-making in the face of uncertainty. We will then tum to a mining example and see that the essential features of the simple example still pertain. From these two examples it will be clear that the decision analysis approach rests on two key concepts: the conditional probability distribution and the loss function. A third example demonstrates how different loss functions produce different ""best"" estimates from the same conditional probability distribution. In the final sections we willexamine the current practice of estimation in the mining industry. Though the tools for estimating the conditional probability distribution already exist, a change in the way we think about ""best"" estimates is needed. Very little attention is presently paid to the loss function even though it is readily available in many mining applications."

Jan 1, 1987

By S. V. Krishnan, I. Iwasaki

In the upgrading of finely disseminated iron ores, selective desliming is the critical step that must be controlled to achieve efficient flotation. A prerequisite for selective desliming is a properly-dispersed pulp; sodium silicate is commonly used as a dispersant. The mechanism by which sodium silicate acts as a dispersant in the presence of calcium ions was examined by streaming potential measurements, settling tests, abstraction density determinations, selective flocculation tests, and scanning electron microscope observations. The study established that calcium silicate precipitates on the mineral surfaces dispersed the pulp. Although sodium silicate was a nonselective dispersant, the addition of corn starch aided flocculation of goethite over quartz at low silicate additions, but became ineffective at higher silicate levels. A model is presented to explain the dispersant mechanism of sodium silicate in the presence of calcium ion for selective flocculation of iron ores.

Jan 1, 1983

By William E. Ford, Edward Salisbury Dana

1. THE SCIENCE OF MINERALOGY treats of those inorganic species called minerals, which together in rock masses or in isolated form make up the material of the crust of the earth, and of other bodies in the universe so far as it is possible to study them in the form of meteorites. 2. Definition of a Mineral. - A Mineral is a body produced by the proc¬esses of inorganic nature, having a definite chemical composition and, if formed under favorable conditions, a certain characteristic molecular structure which is exhibited in its crystalline form and other physical properties. This definition calls for some further explanation. First of all, a mineral must be a homogeneous substance, even when minutely examined by the microscope; further, it must have a definite chemical composition, capable of being expressed by a chemical formula. Thus, much basalt appears to be homogeneous to the eye, but when examined under the microscope . in thin sections it is seen to be made up of different substances, each having characters of its own. Again, obsidian, or volcanic glass, though it may be essentially homogeneous, has not a definite composition corresponding to a specific chemical formula, and is hence classed as a rock, not as a mineral species. Further, several substances, as tachylyte, hyalome¬lane, etc., which at one time passed as minerals, have been relegated to petrology, because it has been shown that they are only local forms of basalt, retaining an apparently homogeneous form due to rapid cooling. Again, a mineral has in all cases a definite molecular structure, unless the conditions of formation have been such as to prevent this, which is rarely true. This molecular structure, as will be shown later, manifests itself in the physical characters and especially in the external crystalline form.

Jan 1, 1922

By D. C. Torre

The coal mining industry has long recognized the need for a system capable of hauling mined coal from the face in a continuous flow. More than 30 years ago, successfully operating continuous haulage systems were first placed in the field. There were a few individually successful applications. However, the truly successful use of such systems really only began in the early seventies. Today, a variety of systems are available from a number of manufacturers. Even so, continuous haulage has not achieved the acceptance and application it would seem to have earned. There is a need for more productive, cost-effective, and safer methods of hauling coal from the face. There is also a need to speed up development for longwall operations. And continuous mining is not really "continuous" unless it is supported by a reliable continuous haulage system. Despite all this, most of the coal producers have failed to exploit the successful continuous haulage systems offered by several manufacturers. In the 1970s, many of the top coal producers tried a continuous haulage system but gave up on it and on the concept. In some cases, major coal companies had systems operating successfully in one mine, or even one division. But their use did not spread to others of their mines or divisions. Frequently, their use was eventually abandoned, even in mines where it had been successful.

Jan 1, 1990

By Steven R. Munts

The U.S. Bureau of Mines investigated mines, prospects, and mineralized areas in the South Providence Wilderness Study Area (WSA) in 1982. No mines are currently operating in the WSA, however, the Golden Gift Mine in the southeastern part of the WSA produced $6,800 1/ worth of gold and silver and five mines adjacent to the east boundary of the WSA had a total production of about $3,500,000 1/ in gold, silver, lead, and copper. There is no recorded placer gold production. Over 350 lode and placer mining claims are in and immediately adjacent to the WSA. Of these, 74 were actively held (1982) and at least one area, which is partly within the northeast portion of the WSA, was being actively explored by private industry in 1982. Adjacent to the southeastern border of the WSA the Big Horn Mine contains an estimated 200,000 tons of indicated and inferred marginal reserves averaging 0.25 oz/ton gold; and the Hidden Hill Mine has 550 tons of subeconomic resources averaging 0.60 oz/ton gold. An additional 11,000 tons of marginally economic gold-bearing dump reserves average 0.17 oz/ton gold at the Bighorn, Hidden Hill, and the Buena Vista Mines and the Midas Touch Prospect. Sample analyses indicate eight mines and prospects in, and five adjacent to the WSA may have additional gold-silver-lead-copper vein-type resources. Five of these prospect areas may have a disseminated gold resource and one may have gold resources in a skarn. One prospect may have a porphyry-type copper-molybdenum resource. Although gold placer claims were filed sporadically throughout the WSA, none appears to have placer gold resources. Likelihood for mining is greatest at the Big Horn Mine; if a mill is built there, it could process Big Horn Mine ore, ore from the Hidden Hill Mine, and gold-bearing dumps at the Big Horn, Hidden Hill, and Buena Vista Mines and the Midas Touch Prospect. All of these resources are adjacent to the WSA; however, their development would increase likelihood for development of resources in the WSA. Two major fault zones (the Hidden Hill, and the Big Horn) appear to have controlled the mineralization at many of the prospects and mines. All of the prospects or mines with vein-type occurrences and resources are on or adjacent to one of these fault zones. Veins throughout the eastern half of the WSA contain various amounts of gold, silver, and copper; only veins near the Big Horn Mine and in the northeastern corner of the WSA contain lead. Some veins are as thick as 6 ft, are traceable intermittently for over 2 mi along strike, are sporadically mineralized, are encased in prophylitic, argillic, and phyllic altered host rock, contain pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, specularite, barite, or fluorite, and display multiple stages of quartz veining and (or) brecciation. Sample analyses at five prospects (map nos. 3, 18, 23, 24, and 31) indicate they may have disseminated gold resources. To date no oil or gas has been discovered within the WSA. However, some oil and gas leases are currently (August 1982) held within this study area.

Jan 1, 1984

By Larkin F, Farrer E, McGhie R. R

The Electrolytic Zinc Company of Australasia Limited commenced productive operations during February, 1936, at the- Rosebery and Hercules mines, which are situated near Rosebery, Tasmania. At this time it was decided that before re-organizing the steel sharpening shop a test should be made of the relative merits of conventional drill-steel and detachable bits. For this purpose Ingersoll-Rand type"I" thread centre hole.jackbits were selected and seventy-two of these were tested against conventional steel. Results indicated that, under the conditions pertaining at these mines, j ackbits should prove more economical than conventional drill-steel bits, and that a large-scale test, under working conditions, should be made. This was done by gradually replacing conventional drill-steel with jackbits at the Rosebery mine. Results were satisfactory and by the end of 1936 both mines were using only the jackbits.

Jan 1, 1939

By Fred S. Karn

Inhibitors are used in coal mines as a precaution against accidental dust explosions. Although rock dust is the usual inhibitor many others have been tested. To facilitate testing a screening process using laser irradiation was proposed. The procedure includes irradiation of a coal-dust mixture followed by mass-spectrometric analysis of the evolved gases and an evaluation of the flammability characteristics of the gases. Carbonate-type inhibitors decreased the percentage of combustibles in the gases generated and inhibitors like NaCI (thermally stable salts) decreased the total gas generated. A suitable test procedure did not result from the investigation, demonstrating the inadequacy of fast heating, non-combustive techniques in rating inhibitors of coal dust explosions.

Jan 1, 1973

By Batric Pesic

Adsorption of gold on activated carbon from gold bromide solutions was examined as a function of pH, particle size, carbon amount, initial gold bromide concentration, bromine concentration, temperature, and various cations and anions. pH did not have any effect below pH=6. Above pH=6, pH had dramatically negative effect. The adsorption results satisfied a first reaction order model. The reaction rate constant was proportional to the inverse of carbon particle radius. It was also proportional to the amount of carbon, and independent of initial gold concentration. Temperature had a very little effect at pH=l. At pH=8, the activation energy was a function of the extent of a reaction, increasing with the extent of a reaction. Cu, Fe, Ca, Mg, and Na cations and sulfate, chloride and bromide anions did not have any effect on gold adsorption. Bromine had a very negative effect on gold uptake.

Jan 1, 1991

By Jane Wright, Brent Blanchard

Question: When it comes to demolition projects, what could be more demanding than asking a blaster to explosively demolish a stubby, heavily-reinforced concrete structure in the heart of a third-world country? Answer: Asking them to fell only half. Such was the charge recently put forth to Controlled Demolition Group (CDG), Yorkshire, UK when they were called to Casablanca, Morocco to provide a stunning demolition effect for the upcoming Universal Pictures film Spy Game, starring Robert Redford and Brad Pitt. Director Tony Scott (True Romance, Enemy of the State) contacted the renowned demolition firm after seeing their work on television and receiving recommendations from explosives manufacturers. The film’s producers then asked the CDG team if they could bring down half of an apartment block as part of a dramatic suicide bomber sequence.

Jan 1, 2002

By David A. Fawcett

An auxiliary cross-pit mining system, working in tandem with the prime excavator, is evaluated technically, operationally and economically for application in the selective removal and replacement of soils and unconsolidated ovezburden. Previous studies on cross-pit technology and applications of this technology are briefly reviewed. Stratigraphy plus pit, operating and economic parameters are assumed and applied in the evaluation and comparison of a base case dragline system with two alternatives - a dragline/scraper-dozer combination and a drag- line/cross-pit system combination. The economics of the proposed cross-pit system favour it as a viable alternative to conventional systems.

Jan 1, 1981