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By C. W. Washburne

Continued discussion of the paper Of ROSWELL H. JOHNSON, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1015, and printed in Bulletin No. 98, February; 1915, pp. 221 to 226. See also Bulletin No. 101, May, 1915, pp. 1157 to 1162, and No. 103, July, 1915, pp. 1449 to 1450. C. W. WASHBURNE, New York, N. Y. (communication to the Secretary*).-Mr. Johnson recognizes that connate waters must be driven, outward toward the earth's surface. He considers the ascent due to the settling and packing of the underlying sediments and to the formation of gas within the rocks, supplemented by abyssal pressures. The origin of the methane in the sedimentary strata probably is not simple. There are three possible modes of origin: (1) as marsh gas formed near the surface and entrapped in the sediments; (2) from abyssal sources; (3) by the decomposition of organic matter buried in the sediments. The abyssal source is generally negligible, and in all cases doubtful. The third origin is the most important in the gas fields. A fourth mode of origin, by the dissociation of liquid hydrocarbons, frequently has been suggested, but it is improbable, because crude oils are exothermic. Therefore they have no tendency, to split or decompose at low temperatures, as do endothermic substances, such as coal, which is geologically by the loss of methane, water, and carbon dioxide. This cannot happen to a hydrocarbon until its temperature of dissociation (" cracking point") is reached, which is over 250'.C. for the most easily cracked hydrocarbons and over 400° C. for others. Engler says that the dissociation of fats and waxes into oils is an endothermic process, thereby unconsciously nullifying his own theory of the dissociation of these substances at low temperatures. However, recently I have found reason to think that heat is liberated by the disruption of the molecules of fats and waxes, as it is in the molecular decomposition of the substances of wood, coal, etc. If this tentative opinion is correct, and Engler wrong, then it seems that the Engler-Höfer hypothesis of the origin of oil becomes not only possible, but even probable.

Jan 9, 1915

By E. W. Shaw

Continued discussion of the paper of Roswell H. JOHNSON, presented at the New York meeting, February, 1915, and printed in Bulletin No. 98, February, 1915, pp. 221 to 226. See also Bulletin No. 101, May, 1915, pp. 1157 to 1162. E. W. SHAW, Washington, D. C. (communication to the Secretary+). -With the word petrology-literally the science of rocks-being used primarily for igneous rocks, and with geophysics coming to mean the study of lavas and the rocks into which they solidify, contributions to the knowledge of the physical chemistry of sedimentary rocks, even though only ideas which may be used as working hypotheses, become most welcome. The forces which control the formation and subsequent history of the stratified portions of the earth's crust are so little known that no one has yet been able to settle finally the questions as to whether petroleum is of organic or inorganic origin; whether it originated far from its present position, or nearby. Yet both the chemical and physical problems of the rocks in which oil occurs seem to be more simple than those of the igneous rocks. The oil-bearing rocks of western Pennsylvania, for example, have in all probability never been subjected to a pressure exceeding 3,000 or 4,000 lb. to the square inch, nor to a temperature higher than 100° or 200° C. These pressures are considerably below the crushing strength of rocks, and the temperature far below their melting point. The igneous rocks,, on the other hand, have been affected by enormous pressures and very high temperatures and yet steady progress is being made in reproducing in the laboratory the conditions of their formation and subsequent modification within the earth. The solution of the sedimentary-rock problems would seem to be fully as important as those of igneous rocks, and yet we must content ourselves with reasoning backward and our inferences as to what has happened are oftentimes little more than guesses.1 One of the fundamental problems is the origin of the salt water in oil fields. Is the salt water fossil sea water; has it been formed by the solution o-f salts of various kinds from distinct beds, from disseminated par-ticles, and from the weathering of suitable grains in the rock; or is it of deep-seated origin? Its general resemblance to sea water points to the first, but the principles held by some concerning the free circulation of water throughout the earth's crust, and certain peculiarities of composition indicated by the few analyses available, seem out of harmony with such an explanation.

Jan 7, 1915

By J. F. Kemp

CONTENTS. [ ] INTRODUCTION. THE saying that " of all the known regions of the universe, the most unsafe to reason about is that which is under our feet,"* might well be the motto of the present paper, in view of the writer's profound appreciation of the difficulties and uncertainties of the subject. In such a field, the temptation is very strong to announce a probable proposition, and then to defend it with a loyalty insensibly graduating into partisanship. Conscious of this danger, the writer has endeavored to maintain an impartial and candid form of statement, though others may feel that he has not been wholly successful. The subject, as here considered, falls naturally into two di-

Jan 1, 1902

By Norman Marr

Introduction In Canada, the mining industry and water-power development are intimately associated in that mining, which ranks second among the country's primary industries, depends principally upon hydro-electric energy for its large power requirements. On the whole, the Dominion has been very favourably endowed with water-power resources; generally speaking it is a well-watered country with numerous rivers and lakes located in are as where the topography favours water-power development. Precipitation, the raw material of water power, varies from an annual fall of more than l00 inches on the Pacific coast to about 12 inches in sections of the Prairies and the Northwest Territories; in Ontario and Quebec the annual average is 24 to 40 inches and in Nova Scotia about 45 inches. In its descent to the sea, the resulting run-off, much of it from considerable altitudes, creates sources of potential energy at every rapid and fall along the country's many streams and rivers. Many of the innumerable lakes in the Dominion provide storage basins for the regulation of stream flow, thus enhancing the potential power of available sites. While water-power resources are fairly well distributed across the Dominion, as is shown on the accompanying map of Canada showing power sites (Figure 1), it is particularly fortunate that those areas which are lacking in indigenous fuels have been compensated in large degree for this scarcity by being favoured with a high proportion of the total potential water power. This has an important bearing on the mining industry in that extensive mining operations can be economically carried out in the great Canadian Shield, which is lacking in commercial coal deposits but is rich in water-power resources. This Precambrian formation, which forms a wide belt around Hudson bay and in which many metalliferous ores are found, was 'subject to severe glaciation in a recent geological period, so that its river systems are comparatively young and are characterized by numerous lakes joined by short reaches of fast water, rapids, and falls which offer frequent opportunities for power development. The western Cordilleran region, which also is important in mining, has abundant water power. The accompanying geological map (Figure 2), prepared by the Geological Survey of Canada, shows the great extent of the Precambrian and Cordilleran regions and may be compared with the map of water-power sites to show the high incidence of water-power resources in these potential mining areas in which important mineral discoveries have already been made.

Jan 1, 1949

By Blake M. Loring

RECENTLY the S-curves for 30 to 40 alloy steels have been published.1,2 These steels show individual characteristics, which make each additional S-curve of great interest. There are important differences in the mechanism of the transformation process, the type of transformation product, and the influence of alloying elements. Steels of the same general alloy composition may possess such variable characteristics with regard to the length of time of isothermal transformation that an S-curve for each heat of steel may be desirable. In the present work the isothermal transformation of a steel having the following composition and grain size was studied: 0.20 percent carbon; 0.21 manganese; 0.026 phosphorus; 0.017 sulphur; 0.056 silicon; 1.45 chromium; 3.25 nickel; austenite grain size, 7. The progress of the isothermal transformation was followed by several different methods, including hardness measurements, dilatometer observations, and examinations of the microstructure. It was not expected that these methods would be in precise agreement.3 Accordingly, the changes in microstructure and hardness were given additional weight in determining the initial stage of transformation and the dilatometer measurements were relied on in estimating the completion of the process. The beginning of transformation was indicated by I per cent of transformation products and the end of transformation by about 99 per cent. The reproducibility of the various methods in the ranges of highest sensitivity was checked by several observations at each time and temperature. The steel used in this investigation was annealed for 24 hr. at 925°C. Macroetching revealed no serious segregation. The specimens for the metallographic and hardness investigations were 1 1/4 by 1/2 by 1/8 in. Wires attached to the samples were used for handling, instead of tongs, to avoid chilling. The specimens were heated at 845°C. for 1/2 hr. and quenched into constant-temperature salt baths held at various temperatures from 205° to 650°C. The time required to transfer the specimens was found to be about x 1 1/2 sec., and nearly 5 sec. more was required for them to come to the temperature of the bath. After various lengths of time in the constant-temperature baths the specimens were quenched in water at 21°C. The specimens were cut in half for the metallographic examination, to provide a surface free from decarburization. To determine the beginning and end of the transformation the percentage of transformation determined metallographically and by hardness was plotted against time. A planimeter was used in the metallographic determination. The hardness and metallographic determinations made at room temperature were confirmed reasonably well by dilatometer measurements taken during the process of transformation at the various temperatures. Two dilatometers were used to

Jan 1, 1941

By Doll. H. G.

THIS paper discusses a method and apparatus for determining the dip of formations traversed by a drill hole, by means of electrical measurements in the hole. The process consists in recording the Spontaneous Potentials present along three oriented generatrices in the hole, By comparison of the three curves thus obtained, after application of a correction factor to compensate for any deviations of the hole, the dip angle and the dip direction are determined. Excellent accuracy is obtained for dip angles over 10°. Because the method is simple and the apparatus rugged, the measurements are rapid and reliable; consequently, they can be made at all the levels that are of interest at any time after the well has been drilled. Mechanical cores are not needed to evaluate the dips. A convenient, time-saving procedure is to perform the dipmeter survey at the time the electrical log is taken, using for both operations the same cable and truck. Actual examples of results obtained in wells of the Gulf Coast area are given.

Jan 1, 1942

By H. G. Doll

THIS paper discusses a method and apparatus for determining the dip of formations traversed by a drill hole, by means of electrical measurements in the hole. The process consists in recording the Spontaneous Potentials present along three oriented generatrices in the hole. By comparison of the three curves thus obtained, after application of a correction factor to compensate for any deviations of the hole, the dip angle and the dip direction are determined. Excellent accuracy is obtained for dip angles over 10°. Because the method is simple and the apparatus rugged, the measurements are rapid and reliable; consequently, they can be made at all the levels that are of interest at any time after the well has been drilled. Mechanical cores are not needed to evaluate the dips. A convenient, timesaving procedure is to perform the dipmeter survey at the time the electrical log is taken, using for both operations the same cable and truck. Actual examples of results obtained in wells of the Gulf Coast area are given.

Jan 1, 1944

By P. Garritsen, J .. A. Blanco, M. C. Bell

"By 1994, Inco Limited will lower sulphur dioxide emissions from the Copper Cliffsmelter by 60% to 265 000 tonnes/year, primarily through implementing two key process changes. First, new milling technology will permit economic rejection of additonal pyrrhotite prior to smelting. Second, a bulk coppernickel concentrate will be oxygen flash-smelted, thereby eliminating the existing multi-hearth roasters and reverberatory furnaces . All copper will be recovered in the matte separation plant as a nickeliferous chalcocite, and will be oxygen flash-smelted for blister production. This paper outlines the development of the project and describes the process, including the flash furnaces, new sulphuric acid plant and additional oxygen plant.IntroductionInco 's SO2 Abatement Program will lower sulphur dioxide emissions at Sudbury from the current levels of 685 000 tonnes per year to 265 000 tonnes per year by 1994 as required by Ontario' s countdown on acid rain regulations.It is the high tonnage of sulphur mined that creates the magnitude of the SO2 emission problem at Sudbury. At a production rate of 240 million pounds of nickel per year, Inco mines 12 million tonnes of ore. At 10% sulphur it mines 1.2 million tonnes per year of sulphur. If Inco did not fix any of this sulphur it would be emitting 2.4 million tonnes per year of sulphur dioxide-about as much as all other Canadian emissions. Today, however, Inco is already fixing 70% of the SO2 in ore, in several ways : mostly as sulphur in pyrrhotite rejected to tailings in the milling operations; as acid from the roasting of pyrrhotite and some nickel concentrate at the Iron Ore Recovery Plant (lORP) and some as liquid S02 from the copper flash smelting furnace. By fixing 70% of the sulphur the current allowable SO2 emission levels of 685 000 tonnes per year is met. Total sulphuric acid production is currently 450 000 tonnes per year and in fact, the 10RP operation is being continued only to maintain established acid markets.Historically emissions have been reduced from the 2 000 000 tonne per year level to the current level of 685 000 tonnes per year by rejecting pyrrhotite from the smelter feed, and 70% of the SO2 containment problem at Sudbury has already been addressed.While Inco's profits are large at current nickel prices, most people have forgotten that back in 1982 Inco was losing a million dollars a day. Inco did make a dramatic response to this economic stimulus. The Ontario Division increased productivity by 65% and lowered costs to become the lowest cost nickel producer."

Jan 1, 1990

Four slag types covering the range of Fe-Ca-Si-O compositions and two iron blast furnace slags were melted at 1300 °C and doped with 1% of arsenic, antimony, cadmium, zinc and chromium. The melts were either slow cooled or quenched and the solidified slags were leached according to TCLP procedures. The morphology of the solidified slags was characterised using XRD, optical and electron microprobe techniques. Theoretical considerations showed that the capacity of the molten slag to hold the above toxic elements depended upon slag basicity and this was confirmed in practice. The experiments showed that the leaching of the toxic elements was a function of surface area and the phases present, both of which were affected by the mode of cooling. Iron silicate slags produced in nonferrous smelting operations and blast furnace slag from ferrous smelting operations both show promise of being suitable media for immobilising low levels of toxic elements and complying with current regulatory requirements.

Jan 1, 1994

By William H. Snyer, Victor A. Sterner

A cache of buried explosives was discovered by ICI Explosives, USA Inc. at one of their sites near Gillette, Wyoming. An intensive investigation conducted by ICI management indicated that nitroglycerin sensitized dynamite might be present. Information also indicated that up to 20,000 pounds of explosives may have been buried.

Jan 1, 1997

By Eugene Baker

President George Bush signed the Safe Explosives Act (SEA), which amended the Organized Crime Control Act (OCCA) of 1970, into Law on November 24, 2002. As a result of this legislation, new restrictions on who could legally receive or possess explosives in the United States went into effect, resulting in a profound impact on the commercial explosives industry. The law went into effect in two key phases. The first phase, which went into effect on January 24, 2003, resulted in additions to the categories of persons who are prohibited from receiving or possessing explosive materials in the U.S.

Jan 1, 2004

By Alyse Munro Hindley

The increasing negative public opinion toward blasting has led to stricter regulations and increased costs. This paper outlines alternative methods of rock excavation and the safety regulations and certification required by blasting professionals. Most importantly, however, it showcases the benefits and accomplishments that controlled blasting bring to society, giving the public a better understanding of the necessity of blasting in modern society.

Jan 1, 2015

By Mitchell D

In recent years the need to provide increased ventilation to improve environmental conditions rather than to dilute firedamp has led to increasing interest in the use of recirculation. Present UK mining law prohibits recirculation in ventilation, but it has been permitted selectively by exemption granted by Hm Inspectorate of Mines and Quarries. The conditions of use imposed by these exemptions to safeguard the safety and health of miners are examined in detail, dealing separately with primary and auxiliary recirculation systems.

Jan 1, 1988

By L. P. Lamprecht

Traditionally, South African shaft sinking operations have used electric detonators for the initiation of blastholes. Globally, the trend in shaft sinking is to use the shock tube and detonating cord (STDC) initiation system, with value adding benefits. In pursuing this global trend, Cementation Mining of South Africa in partnership with SMX have ventured the STDC route. This paper explores the work carried out to date, and identifies a number of benefits to be gained by using the system.

Jan 1, 1999

By Charles Vaught, Kathleen Kowalski

Emergency personnel, like all workers, carry out their duties within an environment composed of a set of discrete elements. First, there is the emergency itself. Whether a forest fire in France, a tornado in the American Midwest, or a mining disaster in Russia, the emergency imposes certain exigencies upon the responders. Second, a social structure exists with specific social units, rules, and forms of association. An emergency response, therefore, takes place within a context of prescribed behaviors, expectations, and value judgments that are sometimes in conflict with each other. Third, there is a technology that must be understood in order to accomplish group goals. If the technology itself is implicated in the emergency, the entire emergency environment may be impacted. Clearly, a breakdown in any of these elements could result in worker injury and might heighten responder stress. This paper discusses how emergency workers not only get injured but may come to experience bum-out, post-traumatic stress syndrome, or impaired work and family relationships, even though their normal work setting (the emergency) is expected to be 'abnormal'. The authors suggest areas in each of the three environmental elements that, deserve further inquiry.

By G. Winkel

Safety conditions in industry have greatly improved over time. However, around the world, in Canada, and in each province or territory, people are still the victims of serious industrial accidents. The increasing safety of people at work then continues to be an imperative in industry today.<p> So how do we achieve a workplace where no one gets hurt? Well, in simple terms, folks need to be protected from unplanned exposures to equipment or energy sources that can do harm. If you think about it, all of our efforts in loss management and safety should then be directed toward avoiding these uncontrolled events. And it works! Our safety performance over the years has enjoyed tremendous improvement due to this support for loss management and safety. We now explore best practices toward achieving that next step in safety improvement.<p> As shown following, a large combination of loss management activities act together to support safety performance. Many of these activities are interrelated and some people have described them as the ?inputs? into an approach or program for achieving safety. Using this description, it follows that the ?outputs? of the program are some of the advertised measures of safety we see around us today, such as injury frequency rates. <p> It is asserted that a leadership focus to regularly measure safety and loss management activites (so-called ?inputs?), as a basis for taking supportive actions to ensure their effectiveness, is the basis for safety results (so-called ?outputs?) that consistently achieve high standards of excellence.<p> The concept of managing input activities, as enabled by effective measurements, can significantly act to transform our focus and priorities in the workplace. Supporting input activities like strategies, plans, or procedures with our best efforts will get us to our intended goals. Tracking outputs alone will not.<p> Safety and production have traditionally been cast as competing objectives. When both objectives are mutually supported and considered, however, people will invent ways of doing work that support both safety and production, and any other business parameter. When done right, innovation through meaningful involvement of affected people in the workplace will support safety excellence in a manner that in turn improves business efficiency overall.<p> For a workplace to be safe, it then requires everyone?s help and participation to make it happen, a collaborative effort by management, leaders, and frontline folks with the power and responsibility to take appropriate action at every level in the organization. In this way, everyone becomes a leader in safety.<p> The achievement of commitment to loss management input activities by folks in the workplace is the basis for attaining safety excellence. A workplace founded on commitment supports a safety culture with a vision for safe work performance at outstanding or world-class levels of achievement.<p> One may ask if injury incidents will be eliminated with this commitment and focus on workplace safety? Well, despite our best efforts in this area, there is never a guarantee that things can?t go wrong. We are simply not perfect. There remains in our workplace complexities and unanticipated risks that can have disastrous consequences if not managed at every moment. And when it goes wrong, we need to know we?ve truly tried our best, and now we have more to learn so we can get even better. <p> That?s the challenge represented by the safety imperative, a challenge to take safety performance that next step, a fulfillment of our commitment to the moral obligation we have to each other?s safety. It?s an effort that will continually raise the bar of world-class safety performance achievement for future generations. It?s a legacy we can be proud to be part of.

Sep 1, 2004

By G. Winkel

"Safety conditions in industry have greatly improved over time. However, around the world, in Canada, and in each province or territory, people are still the victims of serious industrial accidents. The increasing safety of people at work then continues to be an imperative in industry today. In addition to protecting people, safety has been shown to make good business sense in any industry.The road to safety improvement is built on establishing a culture of safety that forms the basis for how work gets done in a company. Most importantly, an effective safety culture is built on the full engagement and participation of workers and leaders alike, who share in a vision for safe work performance where “no one gets hurt” and “everyone is a leader in safety.”Let’s learn together on how we can make a safety culture happen. The resulting bias for safety will ultimately save lives, and fulfills our moral objective to strive for safety excellence. IntroductionWe have the good fortune of living in democratic countries where freedom and the value of human life are key beliefs. These beliefs translate into the moral obligations and laws that we value and uphold in our society and life today.A minesite or workplace is simply a necessary part of our society where people earn a living. It is a place where our moral obligations and laws equally apply, a place where human life is of ultimate importance and value. In the early years of industry, this value has not always been evident. Take this description of a tragic accident reported in a coal mine on December 8, 1879:“Oliver Thompson, shaftman, aged 35— While taking wooden partitions out of a ventilation shaft, he fell off the work platform a distance of 100 yards, there did not appear to be anything unusual to account for this accident.”"

Jan 1, 2004

By E. Higgins

It is the purpose of this paper to set forth the relation and function of the various organizations and institutes engaged in the promotion of safety in the iron mines of the Lake Superior region…

Jan 1, 1915

By Edwin Higgins

INTRODUCTION IT is the purpose of this paper to set forth the relation and functions of the various organizations and institutions engaged in the promotion of safety iii the iron mines of the Lake Superior region; also to indicate the value of this work. Ten to 15 years ago there was practically no organized safety work; the accident rate was high, excessively so in some districts, and dangerous practices and conditions existed in many of the mines. During recent years, however, a gradual change for the better has been made. The chief causes of this change have been (a) public opinion, which has set the stamp of disapproval on the disregard for human life; (b) certain State laws which have made the operators responsible in dollars and cents for injuries to workmen; and (c) the humanitarian attitude of many of the operators, who have always decried the great loss of life in the mines. Today the Lake Superior region as a whole stands second to no other metal-mining district in the United States in its efforts to promote the welfare and safety of the miner. Dangerous practices in and about the mines are fast disappearing. The operators are ready and eager to adopt any expedient, rule, or device that holds forth a reasonable promise of reducing the hazards of the miner. Today the value of a mine captain or shift boss is reckoned, not alone on his ability to "get the ore," but also on his capacity for reducing accidents. While the progress made has been remarkable, there still remains much to be done, for the accident records of the Lake Superior iron mines, while lower than those of the chief metal-mining regions of the United States, still compare unfavorably with those of the metal mines of practically all foreign countries.

Jan 10, 1914

By Kerina Taylor

Due to their high amount of stored energy, explosives have been the cause of many serious injuries and fatalities over the last centuries. Despite safety advances and awareness in the last decades, injuries and fatalities continue to occur at mining operations due to blasting. According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, from 1978 to 2001, blasting incidents claimed 106 lives and were responsible for over 1000 injuries in mines in the US. The main causes of incidents found today are flyrock, blast area security and premature detonations. The concerted efforts of the mining and explosives industries and labour and government agencies have greatly improved the safety record of blasting in mines.

Jan 1, 2011