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By Van E. Housman, Stephan Hoffman

Introduction Based upon the 1980 Bevill Amendment to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), a 1986 Regulatory Determination decision, and subsequent rulemakings, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) exempted all extraction and beneficiation wastes and twenty mineral processing wastes from regulation under RCRA Subtitle C (hazardous waste) regulations. These twenty mineral processing waste streams were studied in a 1990 Mineral Processing Report to Congress. For purposes of regulatory classification, EPA made special distinctions between extraction/beneficiation and mineral processing. Wastes determined by EPA to be from the extraction/beneficiation of ores and minerals retain the exemption, while wastes found to be mineral processing, except for the “special" twenty mineral processing wastes, fall within RCRA Subtitle C jurisdiction. For those wastes that are subject to RCRA Subtitle C, § 3004(m) of RCRA requires EPA to set levels or methods of treatment, of any, which would substantially diminish the toxicity of the waste or substantially reduce the likelihood of migration of hazardous constituents from the waste so that short- term and long-term threats to human health and the environment are minimized. These treatment standards are developed by EPA under the Land Disposal Restrictions (LDR) program. Under § 3004(g) (4) of RCRA, EPA is required to promulgate treatment standards for any waste that is newly identified or listed as hazardous. As part of the settlement agreement in Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) v. Reilly and Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. EPA (1992), EPA has agreed to propose a rule by June 30, 1995 and promulgate a final rule by June 30, 1996. This rule is commonly referred to as the "Phase IV" LDR rule and will address newly identified mineral processing wastes. Other wastes that will be addressed in this rule include newly listed dyes and pigments and wood preserving wastes. Therefore, in the Phase IV rule EPA will develop treatment standards for all mineral processing wastes that have lost their Bevill exclusion. EPA is currently collecting information on the waste characterization, treatment alternatives, and disposal capacity data currently available on these wastes. EPA is also soliciting data and information on opportunities for

Jan 1, 1995

By G. E. Slagel

On August 3, 1987, a hearing was held by the House Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA). Four panels of environmental/citizen group representatives went before the Subcommittee to report on the state of affairs (from their perspective) of the coal industry and the Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE) As expected, these groups had little positive news to report and continued to focus on glaring deficiencies within the surface mining program. They indicated that gross abuse of SMCRA has continued over the past ten years and the states have performed poorly. Congressman Udall's opening comments perhaps best characterized the mood of the group with his statement that "The Act has not accomplished what I or the people of the coalfields had hoped." and " ? a segment of the coal industry has continued in its bitter and implacable opposition to the most basic of environmental controls."

Jan 1, 1988

Land is of extreme importance to citizens of Papua New Guinea and is fundamental to most of their customs and values. Because of this, matters to do with land cannot easily be separated from other matters to do with the community. Good relation-ships with landowners and the community surrounding a development are, indispensable ingredients that -must flavour and colour the entire ;operati on .

Jan 1, 1994

By John M. Crowl, L. E. Sawyer

5.3-1. General Public Resistance to Strip Mining. Surface (strip) mining is the oldest recorded method of extracting coal and other minerals from the earth. This method of mining completely alters the topography of the earth's surface, leaving an area of more or less parallel ridges or of peaked mounds of the materials which overlay the mineral seam. It destroys all original vegetation and provides materials for new type soil. During the early years the acreage mined by this method was small, land was plentiful, and with a growing young nation no thought was given to the restoration of the disturbed areas to some form of productive use. Early in the present century the development of steam shovels and drag-lines made it possible to remove thicker overburden to recover the products. With the deeper digging, the size of the disturbed areas increased. With this increase in the size of equipment and the improvement of blasting techniques, mining was expanded into more prominent locations and to areas of more valuable land. The more progressive operators became aware of the need to reclaim those areas for some productive use. Electric shovels with capacities of up to 200 cu yd and draglines with capacities of 145 cu yd, capable of uncovering products over 100 ft below the surface, are now in use. Combined with the increase in the size of equipment, the expansion of contour mining or rim stripping in the mountainous areas has focused public attention on the need for a sound reclamation program for all disturbed areas. APPEARANCE. After mining, the areas consist of varying percentages of rock, shale, slate, and soil material devoid of all plant and animal life. Unless a definite reclamation plan is carried out, many of the mined areas will remain bare for a period of years. The topography of the area is completely altered. What may have been level to rolling land in cultivation, in grass, or in timber is thrown up into a series of ridges or mounds.

Jan 1, 1968

One of the most significant problems experienced in land reclamation work has been the tendency of earthmovers to over-compact the subsoils and topsoils. The need for extensive subsoil drainage, because of over-compaction, becomes a very expensive exercise and can be attributed to poor planning. The problem has been addressed both at the Waihi and Huntly open-cast mines through the use of low ground pressure machines in the placement of subsoils and contouring. The use of subsoilers working to contour to aerate the soils is essential to integrate both the sub and topsoils so that significant root growth and drainage is established. Waihi's rainfall (approximately 200 mm annually) and light soils create difficulties in preparing for the final seed bed. A noticeable factor in preparation of the growing medium was the reaction of the lime particularly in the subsoils (damp), from a lumpy, quite heavy texture to almost a seed-bed texture within a period of approximately 72 hours. Also the high incidence of stone and debris which was not apparent in the placement of subsoils meant the job became very labour intensive. This will be overcome with the importation of a machine from the USA. All of the rubber tyred tractors used on these projects are four wheel drive in the 6S-aOhp range which for weight distribution and the safety factors allows for good landscaping techniques. Good engineering practices should ensure that slopes of no more than 3:1 be designed, keeping in mind that the long term planning must allow for maintenance and stock management of restored land.  In the preparation of the final growing medium the equipment used included: Caterpillar 05 LPG and blade; three-four wheel drive rubber tyre tractors; Super flow subsoiler; hydraulic twin spinner manure spreader; discs û two types; harrows; MF Seeder; Cambridge Roller and Duncan Rotatiller.

Jan 1, 1991

By R B. Stewart

Where pasture production is the intended land use of the areas to be reclaimed, the creation of a suitable growing +medium is a major objective. To achieve this land reclaimers require a sound understanding of the proposed mining plan and a knowledge of the physical, biological and chemical properties of materials intended for resurfacing disturbed areas. Where the original soil is not being replaced in its natural state, research is usually required to determine an alternative growing medium. Results from field research conducted on waste material from the Waihi Gold mine are reported with emphasis on the significance of soil depth in relation to pasture production in this environment.  Problems in extrapolating field research to large scale operations are also considered.   Essentially the requirements for successful pasture production, on surrogate growing medium, are akin to conventional approaches used in New Zealand in the development of unimproved agricultural land. High inputs of fertiliser are initially needed, especially where volcanic soil is used, and careful management of pastures and soils is required to minimise soil erosion and create a sustainable system. In the first three to five years of pasture production, grazing use of the land requires to be dictated by pasture availability and soil conditions and not by animal feed requirements. The use of light stock (young dairy or sheep) is recommended.   Successful land restoration requires a team approach by a range of cooperative specialists including engineers, soil scientists, farm managers, agricultural contractors, landscape architects and environmental officers.

Jan 1, 1991

By Gene R. Block

The most economical method of reclaiming land that has been mined, whether it be in urban areas or in rural areas, is when the final configuration of the mining area is that which is required by the subsequent use. Surprisingly, there are a number of examples of this situation. In the arid southwest where water production for the expanding population is a problem, many urban sand & gravel excavation areas subsequently serve as holding basins for ground water recharge. In other areas of the county where water is not in short supply, sand and gravel excavations can be planned in such a way that subsequent land uses such as parks and homesites can be enhanced by utilizing the excavated areas as a water amenity. Reclaiming land for agriculture is another example of utilizing the excavated area for a subsequent use providing the excavated area has not been mined too deep. Other than replacing the layer of topsoil on the excavated area, the final configuration of the mining area is in many cases ready for the subsequent agricultural use.

Jan 1, 1984

By Fred C. Caspall

During the last century the importance of coal as a natural re- source has frequently come to the attention of the general public, but never before nave circumstances combined to focus as much attention on coal as it receives today. There is the ever increasing demand for energy that can be met only by coal consumption, coupled with a growing awareness of man's potential for despoiling his own environment. Society monitors the use of the remaining resources with an increasingly critical eye and, for obvious reasons, surface mining operations tend to draw an unusual amount of public attention. While the surface mine is a successful economic competitor with other uses of the earth's outer skin, one of the unrewarding results of such activity is tile simultaneous destruction of two of our most important resources--the coal seam and the surface soil. In a relative sense the coal seam is a nonreplaceable resource but the surface soil can be restored. Unfortunately, little attention has been given to land reclamation and even less has been devoted to the restoration of a productive surface soil. The research reported in this paper was de- signed to test the relative productivity of newly reclaimed surface mine spoils in western Illinois. The results are preliminary in nature but may aid in the future redevelopment of mine spoil soils in the Illinois Coal Basin.

Jan 1, 1975

By A. Foscolos

Land reclamation and rehabilitation of depleted coal mines in the wider area of Ptolemais-Amynteon is practiced by the Division of Mines of the Public Power Corporation of Greece in order to conform to the concept of environmentally sustainable economic development of its operations. Detailed chemical and mineralogical studies were performed on reclaimed soils and their crops in order to evaluate the results of land reclamation and rehabilitation while similar studies were undertaken in adjacent, regularly cultivated, soils. Results indicate that trace element concentrations as well as concentrations of elements of environmental concern to be higher in regularly cultivated soils than the reclaimed ones. However, the concentration of the elements in wheat grains harvested from both, regular and reclaimed, group of soils is the same. The reason for this behavior is the very low water solubility, of the elements in the soils, due to their high pH values and the nature of their occurrence. As a result, wheat crops produced from reclaimed-rehabilitated soils developed on depleted lignite mines in the wider area of Ptolemais-Amynteon do not pose any health problem on either humans or animals when consumed.

Jan 1, 2003

By P E. H Gregg, R B. Stewart

Reclamation field trials commenced in 1985, two years before the granting of the Mining Licence. The level of pasture production on varying soil depths (0 cm, 5 cm, 15 cm and 25 cm) overlying both tailings and oxidised waste overburden was assessed.   After seven years, the rate of increase of N, C, P and S, losses of Sand P and pH changes were investigated on the plots where grass seed was sown into bare tailings. It was determined that on these plots it would take approximately 24 years to reach the original carbon and nitrogen levels at the mine site. Further tailings trials have been initiated to investigate alternative land use options for the tailings dam. Growth increases of 73% occurred in native species growing directly in tailings, and growth increases of 78% occurred in tailings amended with compost over the first six months. Pasture trials on tailings with and without a compost amendment have also been initiated. Research has commenced to investigate the restoration options for acid producing pit slopes. The early field trials have been put into practice with the restoration of oxidised waste on the tailings embankment. This is progressive with approximately 16 ha restored to productive pasture at present. Yields compare well with those of the most versatile and productive soils types investigated in baseline studies of the area before the tailings dam was constructed.

Jan 1, 1995

By Gregg PEH, Stewart RB

Reclamation field trials commenced in 1985, two years before the granting of the Mining Licence. The level of pasture production on varying soil depths (0 cm, 5 cm, 15 cm and 25 cm) overlying both tailings and oxidised waste overburden was assessed. After seven years, the rate of increase of N, C, P and S, losses of S and P and pH changes were investigated on the plots where grass seed was sown into bare tailings. It was determined that on these plots it would take approximately 24 years to reach the original carbon and nitrogen levels at the mine site.

Jan 1, 1995

By J. Georgi

A number of infrastructure projects are on progress all around Greece at the moment. The common propose of these a project is the promotion of quality in: Design, construction and maintenance stages. They also comply with environmental management, which is, a method of organizing and implementing environmental protection measures. The paper includes by special reference on two important modern transport infrastructure projects for the development of Greece and its communication with Europe and the Balkans. Their landscape types and natural vegetation, local climate, geological conditions, altitudes, aspects and soil types vary As a result, upland landscapes in particular, are endangered. Due to the complex of nature of this environment, the development and the landscape design of the projects is a high challenging task. Wherever the nature of the projects requires intervention to the environment, they intend to follow the direct restoration of landscape and method for ecological balance. The implementation of landscape design of infrastructure projects, aims at restoring the landscape affected by construction works, incorporating transport works into the landscape, emphasizing on areas of particular interest (e.g. archaeological sites), while at the same time observing the principles of an efficient operation and safe use of the alignment. Landscape design provides, among others for the protection of slopes against surface erosion and the reinforcement of their stability, the improvement of road functionality, the aesthetic improvement of the landscape, adaptation of the road landscape to the greater environment, visual guidance of the user, screening of lights of the vehicles moving in the opposite direction, the protection against wind etc. The landscape design strategy and landscape applications are specified by special landscape guidelines and specifications that can be considered as part of the sustainable development of a alignment creating a high a esthetic scenery, ensuring the security of transportation and the environmental protection.

Jan 1, 2002

By D Crequer

Land rehabilitation at Golden Cross is reviewed, 8 years after mine closure in 1997/98, from the perspectives of a Peer Reviewer (land rehabilitation) and a Regional Council Officer (Resource Consents compliance). Land rehabilitation items we discuss include: management of restored pastures, native plantings (on-site riparian and block plantings and off-site environmental riparian enhancement plantings), wetlands (on-site tailings lake and sediment ponds littoral zone plantings, and basement of the open pit; and off-site wetlands enhancement plantings), pine plantations on-site and on surrounding land, stabilization of the Tailings Lake Embankment (landslide) and Open Pit capping, capping of acid-mine-rock, stability of discharge channels, buildings and amenities, public access for recreation, educational uses, and future management of the site. Pest control has helped to conserve the rare and endangered HochstetterÆs (Leiopelma hochstetteri) and ArcheyÆs (L. archeyi) frogs, and a regionally significant stand of rare swamp maire (Syzygium maire) has been conserved and fenced.

Jan 1, 2006

By P R. Denize, V S. Wein

A brief review of the Waipipi Iron Sands Limited company history and operations over the past ten years is made along with a summary of the benefits of this mining company to New Zealand. Land rehabilitation procedures in coastal dune lands are described in detail and brief mention is made of a study of animal health and copper uptake. The paper concludes with a summary of the increased emphasis on agronomy and restoration as the mining operation commences dredging in a better class of grazing land.

Jan 1, 1981

By F K. Buckley

Currently, Kanieri Gold Dredging Limited operates the only large scale gold dredging operation in New Zealand. It dredges a claim in the Taramakau River using the bucket dredge 'Kanieri'. This dredge, a 'Yuba' type, was designed and built in the 1930s. On the current claim it works about 12 hectares of ground a year. Because of its design, the tailings from the 'Kanieri' make land restoration difficult. This was unimportant until it commenced its new claim ML-32-310 in 1978. The conditions, attached to this licence required it to restore the land for afforestation, the designated use fur the Crown land being mined. With the company planning to work future claims on the Grey River, it decided to undertake restoration work on the Taramakau to demonstrate its capability of establishing pasture land on tailings, a more difficult task than restoring the land for afforestation. After two years and the restoration of two blocks totalling 22 hectares, reasonable pasture establishment has been achieved. Much has been learned to date and further refinement of the techniques used will take place over the next two years. The quality of the tailings produced has improved as a result of the limited modifications possible on the existing dredge. This has been significant in achieving better results. The knowledge gained will be taken into account in future dredge design. Both the Company and its Consultant are confident of achieving satisfactory restoration of dredge tailings for pasture land.

Jan 1, 1981

In 1969, Queensland Mines Limited obtained two large Prospecting Authorities in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, Australia. The Nabarlek uranium deposit containing some 12 000 t of U308 was discovered on one of these in June 1970. Mining and stockpiling of this deposit were completed in 1979 and processing to yellowcake, which commenced in June 1980, is expected to occupy an 8-10 year period. The continuation of exploration, essential for the company to become a longer- term producer, was inhibited in 1972 by a Federal Government "freeze" on exploration in Aboriginal Reserves in the Northern Territory. Subsequently, the procedure for explorers to gain access to exploration areas in Aboriginal land was radically changed by the proclamation of the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976. As a result of this Act and the associated administrative policies adopted by Governments, Queensland Mines Limited has not yet regained access to the exploration areas it formally held in the early 1970's.

Jan 1, 1986

The first grant of land rights in Australia was pursuant to the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976. That Act has been at the core of the dispute between land rights and miners' rights. The mining industry believes that the Act, in giving a right of veto to Aborigines with respect to exploration and mining on Aboriginal land, has been responsible for a stagnation in exploration amd mining activity in the Northern Territory. In February 1985 the Commonwealth Government released for public comment its preferred model for national land rights legislation. The model has been opposed by the mining industry because it believes, first, that land rights is a matter which should be left to the States and, secondly, that the detailed mechanisms contained in the model constrain the industry in the manner of the Northern Territory legislation. Aboriginal leaders have opposed the model because it does not, in their view, measure up to undertakings given by the Commonwealth Government and, in addition, it provides for amendments to the Northern Territory legislation which are likely to result in the loss of the Aboriginal veto right. Are land rights and miner's rights compatible? The answer is yes provided all parties, including Governments, are prepared to talk and compromise and Governments recognise that the grant of land rights and any control by the Aboriginal people of exploration and mining on their land is not a substitute for raising the living standards of Aborigines as a significant group of disadvantaged Australians.

Jan 1, 1986

By Jack C. Stuart, Robert L. Obradovic, Allen J. Hulshizer, Anthony J. Stewart

Two deep bedrock tunnels, extending over a mile into the Atlantic Ocean, to provide the cooling water requirements for the Seabrook Station represent a major tunneling venture. This paper provides an outline and discussion of the planning and construction work associated with developing of the land riser and work shafts and the conventionally excavated tunnel station area.

Jan 1, 1979

In his introductory remarks Mr. MacKellar referred to three types of development which may be considered to compete with mining for land use. 1. Total Development - in which he cited urban development, and intensive agriculture. 2. Partial development - in which he cited pastoral, and in this category would come National Parks. 3. Non development - in which category would fall the primitive or wilderness areas.

Jan 1, 1971

By M. J. Hart

There are no formulas that guarantee success when it comes to obtaining zoning approval for mineral aggregate mining. Local land use decisions often times represent the most controversial issues faced by community. Public awareness, concern, willingness to get involved, sensitivity to the environment and probably most importantly fear of change only begin to describe the atmosphere in which local land use decisions are made. Add to this the public hearing process which is quasi judicial, adversarial, and unfortunately not designed for resolution of disputes and it is not difficult to see the need for an alternative to present methods. Hopefully, some day we will have a process that will do away with or at least minimize unnecessary, unproductive and unmanageable community conflicts.

Jan 1, 1984