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By Ramesh Malhotra

Overseas coal trade has increased from 169 to 274 million metric tons (tonnes) between 1970 and 1983, representing a 3.8% average annual rate of growth. Metallurgical coal accounts for nearly 61% of the international coal market while steam coal's share is about 40%. By year-end 1983, the U.S. was the single largest coal exporter at 77 million tonnes, followed by Australia, 56 million tonnes; Poland, 35 million tonnes; South Africa, 28 million tonnes; USSR, 27 million tonnes; and Canada, 17 million tonnes. Coal exports can play a more significant role for one country than another country. For instance, in the U.S., coal exports accounted for only 9% of total coal demand in 1984 while in Australia, exports accounted for 53% of that country's total coal demand. Of all the major coal exporters, only U.S. exports accounted for less than 10% of total consumption in 1984. Japan is the largest importer of coal, 73.8 million tons in 1983. Although the majority of Japan's imports are metallurgical coal, steam coal imports into Japan increased seven-fold between 1978 and 1983, from 2 to 14 million tonnes. Australia is the leading exporter of both metallurgical and steam coal to Japan, accounting for 47% and 55% of Japan's coal imports, respectively. Since 1978, South Africa has developed into a major steam coal exporter to Japan, increasing its market share from 7.9% to 18.8%. The U.S., which was not even a player in Japan's steam coal market in 1978, has made inroads and accounts for 6.7% of Japan's steam coal imports. However, this translates into only one million tonnes. In the European coal market, for the most part, the U.S. is the leading supplier of metallurgical coal and South Africa is the major supplier of steam coal. The U.S. was not even a factor in the European steam coal market in 1978 and has made inroads during the last six years at the expense of Poland and South Africa. From 1978 to 1983, the U.S. has increased its market share in steam coal exports to France from 0.2 to 28%; Spain, 0 to 52%; Italy, 0 to 43.5%; Denmark, 0 to 19%; Germany, 0.5 to 16%; and the Netherlands, 0.6 to 45%, respectively. The use of coal (solid fuels) as a fuel to produce electricity has had increasing signficance for most of the countries analyzed between 1978 and 1983. The flip side to this is that oil has lost its share of this market during this time period. Of all the countries selected, only France reported a decline in coal's share of total electricity production. This is a reflection of France's ambitious nuclear program.

Jan 1, 1986

By Ken E. Baylis

Current over-capacity in coal production provides assured and relatively low-cost supplies to coal importers. At the same time, it is of serious concern to coal producers who invested considerable sums in the expectation that overseas demand would continue to grow rapidly. This paper assesses the reserves available for export, the export facilities, the coal supplies which can be put through them, and the market prospects for the future. It assumes, rightly or wrongly, that there will be no major and prolonged disruptions in supply from any major sources of coal. COAL RESERVES FOR EXPORT Economically recoverable reserves in the non-communist world amount to about 470 billion tonnes. These are sufficient to sustain current production levels of 2 billion tonnes a year for 235 years.

Jan 1, 1984

By E. W. Pehrson, J. W. Furness

THE method of presentation in the accompanying charts is based upon the well-known formula: production plus imports minus exports equals apparent consumption. Thus for each area for which data are shown there are two columns of equal height, one representing production plus imports, the other apparent consumption plus exports. Usually no account has been taken of increases or decreases in stocks. All columns and flow lines are drawn to a linear scale which is supplemented by figures showing the actual quantities represented. Owing to the small area occupied by the European countries on the world map it was impossible to show the details of the trade of the individual countries. All of Europe (except Russia), therefore, is shown as a single unit. However, statistics of production and consumption indicated elsewhere on the charts show the degree of self-sufficiency enjoyed by the major European powers.

Jan 1, 1936

By Henry N. McCarl

In the period 1982-1992, world trade has increased in real terms about 65% (Anon., 1992b). The nominal value of this trade in the early 1990s is approximately $5 trillion. In 1970, mineral commodities constituted approximately 20% of the value of world trade. By 1980, despite rising petroleum prices, mineral commodities made up about 18% of the total value of world trade, with crude oil amounting to 16% and other minerals the remaining 2%. By 1987, the major worldwide economic slowdown and falling oil prices meant that minerals constituted only about 10% of the total value of world trade, or about $500 billion in 1987 (Kimbell and Zajac, 1988). The importance of minerals in world trade since 1987 has remained at about these levels. Approximately 40% of world mineral commodity production is traded internationally. Some economists predict that minerals and other commodities are likely to continue to decline in relative importance in terms of the value of world economic output, as well as world trade, into the foreseeable future (Thurow, 1992). This projected decline in commodity demand may also be related to much slower global economic growth over the next decade (Alperovitz, 1992). Industrial minerals and rocks constituted roughly 2.5% of total mineral commodity exports in the late 1980s, but their relative importance as a portion of mineral commodity exports nearly doubled in the decade 1977-1987 (Kimbell and Zajac, 1988). Industrial minerals constitute the most rapidly growing share of total mineral commodity exports. In addition, price declines among industrial minerals were uncommon in the decade 1977-1987 (Kimbell and Zajac, 1988). While prices of sulfur and most of the fertilizer minerals have seen some erosion and slow growth in markets in the period 1987-1992, other industrial minerals have increased in both value and share of the export market (USBM, 1992). The place of industrial minerals in world trade becomes even more significant when one looks at shipments of chemical fertilizers and basic chemicals that are counted as manufactured products rather than industrial mineral commodities. The United States is the major world producer of industrial mineral commodities and products made from these nonmetallic minerals and rocks. The former Soviet Union, now The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), and China have very significant deposits of industrial minerals. Japan exports significant quantities of cement. The US, CIS, and Morocco export large amounts of phosphate rock. Canada and Germany export substantial amounts of potash. Sulfur from Poland, industrial diamonds from South Africa, Zaire, and Brazil, and fluorspar from Mexico are all important exports.

Jan 1, 1994

By E. W. Pehrson, J. W. Furness

THE five charts presented here- with are part of an original group prepared by the U. S. Bureau of Mines showing the international trade in the principal metals and metallic ores. Charts 011 anti- mony, chromite, copper, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, tin, tungsten, and zinc were published in the February, 1936, issue of the Engineering and Mining Journal. Those shown here include bauxite, aluminum, iron ore, pig iron, and the platinum-group metals.

Jan 1, 1936

By Henry N. McCarl, Gary Waters, William A. Vogely

INTRODUCTION In the past three decades, world trade has grown from less than $100 billion per year in the years following World War 11 to slightly more than $300 billion in 1970 and over $2,000 billion in the early 1980s. Adjusted for inflation, the real growth of world trade in 1972 dollars increased from less than $175 billion per year in the early 1950s to slightly more than $342 billion in 1970 and almost $700 billion per year by the early 1980s. Thus trade as a whole has increased a little more than twofold in real terms in the past decade." Mineral commodities constituted approximately 20% of the value of total world trade in 1970, and significantly more than that proportion in terms of physical volume. By 1980, de- spite rapidly rising petroleum prices, mineral commodities accounted for roughly 18% of the total value of world trade. Crude oil alone ac- counted for about 16%, making it the single most important commodity in international trade. The worldwide recession of 198 1- 1983 brought a dramatic decline in both volume and price of crude oil, shrinking the impact of mineral commodities to roughly 10% of the value of total exports, worldwide, in 1982- 1983. The decline of mineral commodities as a pro- portion of the value of world trade in the decade 1970- 1980 is due largely to the increasing importance of manufactured goods and consumer products such as automobiles and electronic items. During this period, mineral commodity trade expanded roughly sixfold in terms of current dollars to an estimated $350 to 360 billion in 1980. This was equivalent to doubling the real value of mineral commodities in international trade in the 1970- 1980 period in constant dollars. The U.S. Bureau of Mines has expanded the traditional definition of mineral commodities to include semifinished products such as iron and steel (in addition to iron ore), refined metals such as copper, lead, zinc, aluminum, and tin, concentrates, scrap, and petroleum products. Since large quantities of essentially mineral derivatives travel in this form, it is reasonable to use these expanded definitions in stating the role of minerals in world trade. Thus minerals in world trade comprise 30 to 33% of total export trade in all commodities during the period 1976- 1980 (see Table 1.3.1). In addition, the U.S. Bureau of Mines estimates the value of all mineral commodities consumed in the world (at the national level) and compares this value to total worldwide commodity consumption. By this system, mineral commodities range from 30 to 40% of all commodities consumed each year in all countries during the period 1976- 1980 (see Table 1.3.2). The growth in export trade in mineral commodities by commodity group is shown for the period 1976-1980 in Table 1.3.3. These data parallel the swings in worldwide economic activity during the same time period. By any of the above measures, minerals, especially the fossil fuels, constitute a significant proportion of both total economic activity and

Jan 1, 1985

By M. Sengupta

International trade in minerals plays a very important role in the economic growth of many nations. Several less developed countries a1•e heavily dependent on their mineral exports for earning foreign exchange, which is needed for industrialization. Mineral exporting nations experience many problems in international mineral markets; the most important are tariff barriers, deteriorating terms of trade, instability in metal prices, etc. The formation of international mineral cartels to raise prices can be successful only to a limited extent and only for a short period of time.

Jan 1, 1976

By Herbert D. Drechsler

"THE FOLLOWING are some comments on the article, ""International Trade in Minerals and Economic Development"", by M. Sengupta, published in the October 1976 issue of the CIM Bulletin.Sengupta says in the introduction that ""The mechanism through which this growth (economic development) has occurred is basic ally straight forward"". His statement is quite misleading and perhaps it is better to quote Gerald Meier:""Development economists must operate in an imperfect second-best world, away from the simplified premises of neoclassical economics. Their subject matter is therefore not yet a coherent or self-contained discipline. Denied recourse to a set of general principles, perhaps the student's most sensible introduction to economic development is through a study of 'leading issues' that are at the time a major preoccupation of the development economist and development practitioner"" .Sengupta quotes an authority who wrote 18 years ago. Academic and operating development economists today know full well that existing theory is quite deficient. Sociologists, political scientists and engineers in this field also know that economic, social, political and technical development involves all academic disciplines.Sengupta indicates that tariffs in developed countries prevent less developed countries from supplying refined metal, or manufactured and semi-manufactured products. He lists Zambia, Chile and Zaire as examples of copper concentrate exporters, as inadequately shown in Table 1. He is wrong."

Jan 1, 1977

By E. W. Pehrson, J. W. Furness

NONMETALLIC MINERALS, exclusive of fuels, may be divided into three groups: Building materials, fertilizer minerals, and miscellaneous minerals. Building materials, such as sand, gravel, slone, lime, and the ingredients of cement and clay products, occur widely in nature and are thus available near consuming centers at relatively low prices. Cost of transportation over great distances deters any' substantial movement in world trade. On the other hand, fertilizer minerals, such as phosphate rock, potash, nitrates, sulfur, and pyrite, and the miscellaneous nonmetallic minerals, such as long-fiber asbestos, mica, graphite, fluorspar, and china clay, do not have such widespread occurrence and consequently contribute the major part of the world's commerce in such minerals. The U. S. Bureau of Mines has prepared charts showing the inter-

Jan 1, 1936

By Oliver Bowles

DISCUSSIONS of trade and commerce are generally more comprehensive today than in the past; the problems are approached with a vision unrestricted by national boundaries, and broad enough to comprise the entire world. The extent to which the limited viewpoint that has characterized past ages is yielding to an economy of world-wide scope is exemplified by the Atlantic Charter which blazes a trail in the direction of trade principles that aim to preserve the interest of each individual country in the commonwealth of nations. Its fourth article promulgated the principle that all nations should have access on equal terms to the trade and to the raw materials of the world which may be needed for their economic prosperity. Future developments in reciprocal international trade may have some effect upon the flow of nonmetallic minerals but such effects are not likely to be great because tariffs and trade policies have not affected that flow profoundly in the past. Nevertheless conditions may change and new problems may arise demanding important decisions. Sudden changes are not to be expected, but rather an orderly evolution in which national interests will merit due consideration in establishing broader policies.

Jan 1, 1945

By Kevin B. Doyle

"Canada now supplies 23 per cent of the world demand for potash. Although potash is produced by many countries, Russia and Canada have the greatest reserves and capability to supply the future substantial demand over the next decade. It is estimated that demand will grow from 38,000,000 mt KCl in 1975-76 to 60,000,000 mt KCl in 1985-86. Current firm expansion plans and development underway in the world will move Russia to the forefront in supplying this demand growth. Russia will move from supplying 40 per cent of world demand in 1975 to supplying as much as 52 per cent in 1981. Canadian deposits suffer from natural disadvantages, such as high costs and risks of mine development and operation, and high-cost transportation to international markets, but experience has shown that these natural barriers can be surmounted to effectively compete in these international markets. However, Canadian potash is losing out in the race to supply the growth in the world potash demand over the next ten years because of artificial barriers raised through the unhealthy environment created by the current battle between different levels of government and the industry over resource taxation and legislation."

Jan 1, 1976

By G. A. Campbell

This paper considers the international market trends of the rare earths and how they are strongly influenced by the by-product/co-product nature of their mining and processing. The two main economic minerals for the rare earths are bastnasite and monazite. Monazite is primarily a by-product of mining ilmenite and rutile and is affected by changes in these markets as well as the presence of thorium. Bastnasite is a by-product of mining iron ore in China and a stand-alone product in the USA. The paper will use conceptional relationships and empirical data to delineate the various by-products/co-products relationships and how they determine observed international market behavior.

Jan 1, 1996

By Robert J. Uffen

YOU will likely recall the accomplishments of the International Geophysical Year of 1957, with its polar expeditions, the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belts and the spectacular launchings of the first artificial earth satellites. Our know ledge of the exterior of the earth was greatly increased by this international, friendly, cooperative scientific investigation. The Inter-national Union of Geodesy and Geo-physics has now been joined by the new International Union of Geological Sciences in sponsoring a similar study of the earth's interior. The program will extend from January, 1962 until December. 1964, and is known as the International Upper Mantle Project. During the T.G.Y studies of the interior of the earth were relatively neglected, even though the same international •Cooperation in obtaining simultaneous world-wide observations, by similar instruments, is required to locate and study earth-quakes, for example, as it is to study the earth's upper atmosphere. The upper mantle is 1•emote from man, as it extends from a depth of about 10 km. to perhaps 1000 km., but its practical importance is great.

Jan 1, 1962

This Workshop was held at the Doubletree Inn, Seattle, Washington from September 26 to 28, 1997. Run under the auspices of the Deep Foundations Institute (DFI), it was co-funded by the newly formed Japanese Association of Micropiles (JAMP), and the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). The Workshop was jointly organized and facilitated by Fujita Research Corporation and ECO Geosystems, Inc., with close support by Donald B. Murphy Contractors, Inc. DFI kindly consented to publish these Proceedings. As is clear from the list of attendees, 42 specially invited engineers from all aspects of micropile technology were present, representing Japanese, European and American practice. This proved to be a most friendly and interactive group of people, who freely exchanged ideas, views and close comradeship, not only during the technical sessions, but (and especially!) during the numerous social events. Perhaps the best illustration of this came in Day 2 when the attendees were divided into five competing teams, each comprising representatives from the different geographic groupings. These teams had to quickly devise solutions to two technical problems (using standard data previously provided. A team of "referees" (who also acted as "coaches") later determined the most apposite response, based on constructability design concept, cost, schedule and so on. Not only were the winning team very liberal in distributing the prize (vintage California champagne) among themselves, but the whole Workshop soon benefited from their generous division of the spoils of victory.

Jan 1, 1997

The United States is being invaded... by foreign capital: marks, francs, pounds, yen, lire, riyals, you name it: On almost any given day the Wall Street Journal will contain a new report on a department store, newspaper, bank, hotel, agricultural land, supermarket chain, et a1 being bought into by overseas investment. Xenophobic reaction to this revised national condition has begun to set in. Several farming states have and are introducing legislation to monitor foreign land buying. In Congress a mandatory reporting requirement for foreign purchasing is currently under study. In a relatively short period the country has reverted from world leader- ship in overseas acquisition and involvement to become itself one of the prime investment opportunities in existence. Interestingly enough, one of the industries where this changed status has become most apparent and pronounced is within that small/regional/segmented/low value-to-weight bulk commodity enterprise ranked as the backbone of the nation's construction activity. U.S. cement making is not only undergoing internationalization in its ownership, but also in its product, equipment, and engineering expertise.

Jan 1, 1979

By Michael Elliot-Jones

The fundamental competitive structure in world coal markets will be modified by the entry of such new participants as Colombia and the newer mines in South Africa. The US will, in most markets remain the swing producer, although a number of low cost US mines will continue to compete in world markets. Exchange rate swings will persist as a major hazard for coal exporters.

Jan 1, 1986

By W R. Hancock

Control of complex machinery through the internet is investigated through the construction of a vehicle prototype developed using off-the- shelf hardware. The vehicle was able to be controlled remotely through the use of a client side interface connected to a steering wheel and foot pedals. By attaching sensors to the vehicle, data could be collected from which one could infer the effectiveness of such a control system. The effect of latency on control was monitored by the introduction of an artificial latency, simulating a wide variety of internet-related issues, such as unstable connections and dropouts. Sensor data could then be used to gain an understanding of how the system could be improved though either control or interface design. A path tracking experiment was conducted to gather controllability data and it was found that such a system is plausible within a reasonable range of latencies. It is expected an area of future research would be an extension of this current project, applying the information gained to real world control systems.

Jan 1, 2008

By Richard Hosley, James Daley

Every grey haired member of the explosive’s industry has said at least once, “We have to get some younger blood into our industry, I might want to retire someday.” And many a youngster who loves to see explosions has wondered how to get involved in such an exciting, yet intimidating, industry. While there are many answers to these questions, an internship program is a great answer to both

Jan 1, 2014

By Reichardt Y

Fine feed fractions in the size range from 1 to 40 ¦m of materials with different hardness as limestone and silicon carbide have been stressed in two different devices. A tungsten-carbide-blodc allows a single stressing with a pressure up to 2000 MPa and a 4-piston-block enables a multiple stressing procedure in which the material bed is stressed in alternating directions with a pressure up to 700 MPa. The experiments show energy absorption as the major factor for the interparticle breakage of hard material, like quartz, zircon silicate, silicon carbide and smelted oonindum, pressure, however, does not influence the results within the investigated range from 100 to 700 MPa and even up to 2000 MPa for corundum. But the breakage of the middle-hard limestone depends on the pressure so far as more fineness can be produced if the same energy is introduced at a lower pressure level. The creation of very fine and microfine fragments decreases strongly with increasing hardness of the feed materiaL The energy consumption for producing microfine material with a multiple stressing procedure on a particle bed is much lower than that one of a usual milling process. But this procedure needs a classification with a seperation cut at a couple of microns, which is not easy to accomplish.

Jan 1, 1993

By Ing. H. Kellerwessel, Ing. M. Esna-Ashari

This paper refers to the new crushing and grinding process, invented by Professor Schonert (Ref. 1), Clausthal, Germany. The process is known as high pressure particle bed comminution or interparticle crushing. Several papers already describe fundamentals of the process, the equipment used, results of lab size and large scale tests and the first results of commercial operations (Ref. 2 to 7). Of course, we will treat the topic from the perspective of a downstream gold ore upgrading or leaching process. Some recently executed testwork indicates that the process provides special advantages in this field. To describe the process generally, in view of the already existing publications.

Jan 1, 1998