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By William P. Blake

The attention of travellers, upon the desert bordering the Great Colorado of the West, is often arrested by broad stretches of pebble-covered plains, or mesas, glittering in the sunlight from the myriads of polished surfaces, giving, at a distance, the appearance of a sheet of water. It is not alone the well-rounded, polished surface of these pebbles which commands attention, but, in addition, their nearly black or darkbrown color; and, above all, their uniform distribution in a level sheet, covering the plain in a continuous layer or pavement like a vast mosaic without sand or soil. Hundreds of square miles along the lower Colorado, especially in Yuma county, Arizona, and on the borders of the Colorado Desert in California, are thus covered. It is evident that the former cxtent of such pebbly plains was much greater than now, for the continuity of the mesa is broken into by the numerous dry arroyos or " washes " formed during exceptional showers or deluging rains. In some places there is an underlying bed of pebbly conglomerate, a mixture of pebbles and sand; in others the pebbles rest on a sandy, earthy foundation. The rounded pebbles are distinctly alluvial in origin, and pertain to the ancient Colorado drainage system; but it is not comprehensible that such regular layers of polished pebbles could have been left by subsiding floods or river action. Attention was early directed by me to these remarkable plains, first examined in 1853, when exploring for the United States and seeking a practicable route for a railway to the Pacific coast.* The cut and polished surface of the pebbles

Jan 1, 1904

By Charles S. Barrett

Recrystallization textures—thc orientations of grains after recrys-tallization—have been studied extensively not only because of their metallurgical importance but also because of the information they yield regarding the atomic movements during reerystallization. Recrystallized grains must possess the same orientations as the submicroscopic nuclei from which they have grown, and thus they offer a direet road by which experimenters can penetrate the submicroscopic realm. Many perplexing results have come of these studies, but one of the most striking has been the apparent difference in behavior between single crystals and polyerystalline grains. For example, Burgers and Louwerse have shown1 that when single crystals of aluminum are deformed by compression and are reerystallized (at 600' C.) the new grains appear with orientations that are different from the orientations of the deformed crystal in which they grew; but polycrystalline specimens, on the other hand, appear to have a [110] fiber texture both before and after reerystallization and thus to retain their texture during recrystallization. This apparent difference between the habits of single crystals and small grains is the subject of the first part of the present research and has been explained by findings reported herein. A similar situation appears to exist for aluminum when elongated or drawn into wires, for single crystals alter their orientation 2,3 and polycrystalline wires retain their texture"5*" upon recrystallization after elongation (at least with high-purity aluminum), and it is possible that the explanation found in this paper for compression can be extended to cover elongatioil and other types of deformation as well. The second part of this paper deals with the theory of reerystallization textures. In the most successful theory for aluminum reerystallized after compression,1 much weight is given to the orientation of highly stressed nuclei in the deformed material. Taylor's "local distortions" arc assumed to exist along the slip planes where displacement has occurred, consisting of fragments rotated in a specific way with reference to the slip plane and slip direction; namely, about an axis lying in the slip plane perpendicular to the slip direction.1,7,89

Jan 1, 1940

By H. Rosenthal, A. L. Jamieson

Stress-corrosion cracking of copper-base alloys is of considerable importance and has been the subject of many investigations which employed various accelerated tests and long-time service tests. The outstand¬ing accelerated tests used are variations of either the mercury cracking test reported by Rogers in 1905( 1)2 or the ammonia test reported in 1910(2). The ease of applica¬tion of the mercury test is probably the reason industry adopted it. Subsequent investigation of this test(3,4) revealed that a minimum threshold stress was necessary before mercury cracking could develop. Since season cracking has been found in some instances in caliber 0.3o ammunition which has passed the mercury test, it is evident that the threshold stress value of the mercury test may be too high for dis¬tinguishing between acceptable and un¬acceptable caliber 0.30 cartridge cases. This condition has naturally led to the study of an ammonia test with its ability to cause cracks with almost any stress level. But the lack of a definite threshold value means that standards are necessary for evaluating the results of the ammonia test.

Jan 1, 1945

By John M. Campbell, W. E. Portman

A series of correlating charts have been prepared to enable the field engineer to predict the amount of stock tank fluid produced by stabilization of first stage separator fluid. The charts shown are particularly convenient for estimating the relative effect of temperature and pressure in economic studies. Further work is planned to investigate the factors affecting stage separation' yo supplement this preliminary work. The direct correlation of separation variables is dictated as a convenience to eliminate the trial and error calculation necessary when using the standard flash vaporization equations. These are obtained by a material balance using the equilibrium vaporization ratio K, and have appeared in the following, or similar. form many times in the literature. where La = mols of any component n in the separator liquid Ko — equilibrium vaporization ratio for any component at separator pressure and temperature Fa = mols of any component n in the feed Vn = mols of any component n in the vapor V = total mols of separator vapor These equations may of course be effectively and accurately solved by use of digital and analog computers. However, these are not usually readily available in field offices and the need often arises for fast results during routine operational problems. Consequently, many methods have been devised in an attempt to simplify the basic calculation.2-14 The methods proposed are generally satisfactory, but do not eliminate trial and error methods and the necessity of subsequent calculations to obtain the answer in volume terms. The purpose of this work. therefore, was to develop accurate charts that would give the result directly in gallons. When using stage separation the recoveries would be lower than those shown, for stabilization usually gives about 95 + per cent recovery on the potential stock tank components in the separator liquid. The recoveries are shown in terms of a 14 psi Reid Vapor Pressure product which has a true vapor pressure of 14.7 psia at 98°F. Consequently, this product represents a stable stock tank liquid under normal storage conditions. To estimate natural gasoline re- coveries by stabilization the volume shown may be multiplied by 1.20 for 18 Ib RVP natural gasoline and 1.36 for 26 lb RVP natural gasoline. PROCEDURE The five analyses shown in Table 1 were chosen since they were representative of wellstream compositions often found and had almost the same propanes plus liquid content, expressed in gallons per 1,000 std. cu ft of wellstream. The distribution of the components though is widely variant. A temperature range of 0-100°F. and a pressure range of 200 to 1,250 psia was chosen inasmuch as most separations fall within these limits The K values used were modified values of those originally published by Katz and Hachmuth.' In the range chosen these have generally given good results when predicting fluid recoveries. The choice was somewhat arbitrary, for the authors' personal experience has shown that

Jan 1, 1957

PROF RICHARD ÅKERMAN Stockholm, Sweden DR FRANK DAWSON ADAMS Montreal, Canada PROF RICHARD BECK Friberg, Germany ANDREW CARNEGIR New York, N.Y. DR. JAMES DOUGLAS New York, N.Y. PROF HATON DE LA GOUPILLIERE Paris, France SIR ROBERT A. HADFEILD London, England PROF HANS HOFFER Leoben, Austria HERBERT C. HOOVER Leoben, Austria JAMES FURMAN KEMP New York, N.Y. PROF HENRI LOUIS LE CHATELIER Paris France EZEQUIEL ORDONEZ Mexico City, Mexico DR ROSSITER W, RAYMOND New York, N.Y. PROF RICHARD H, RICHARDS Boston Mass. DR. ING H. C. EMIL SCHROEDTER Dusseldorf, Germany JOHN E. STEAD Middlesborugh, England PROF DIMITRY CONSTANTIN TSCHERNOFF St Petersburg, Russia PROF TSUNASHIRO WADA Tokyo, Japan CHARLES D WALCOT Washingtion D.C.

Jan 1, 1923

By Oliver S. North

Reserves of perlite rock in the western section of the United States are immense. A geological report prepared for the Union Pacific RR showed proved tonnage of over 400 million tons in southern Nevada alone. Yet the perlite industry is not large, and most of the mines are relatively small. There are indications that perlite processing, thus far largely in the hands of relatively small com¬panies, is becoming concentrated in a few large companies. For economic reasons the bulk of perlite sold in crude form has come from three or four pro¬ducers, although many individual operators have sold small quantities to limited lists of purchasers. Perlite is one of ultra-lightweight aggregates. Owing to its outstanding qualities as an aggregate, variety of uses, and ultimate economy of use, it has enjoyed considerable popularity in this country in recent years. Marked foreign interest also has been evinced in this material.

Jan 2, 1955

By William D. Carter

When the first Earth Resources Technology satellite (ERTS-A) is orbited by NASA next year, mineral exploration is expected to take a giant leap forward. There are many inherent advantages in going to space to study large regions of the earth, as existing space data have shown. A preview of what can be expected has already been provided by Gemini and Apollo color photographs taken over many parts of the world in the equatorial belt to 30ºN and S latitude. These comprehensive views cover some 100 sq mi, depicting prominent geologic features in a regional context. Placed side by side with mosaics of aerial photographs covering identical areas, the space pictures point up many inadequacies in the present airborne methods of data acquisition. To obtain a regional picture from aircraft, one must piece together many bits of data, and the final result suffers from variations in lighting and photographic reproduction that may obscure features important to the mineral explorer. By contrast, space photographs provide unsegmented synoptic views of large areas as they appear in a single instant under uniform lighting conditions.

Jan 1, 1971

By W. F. James, Richard Murphy, S. N. Kesten, A. H. Land

Introduction—by W. F. James and A. H. Lang This paper describes the geology and present state of development of uranium and thorium deposits in Canada. It is expected that this information will be added to that now being assembled from available American and British data to provide a background for engineers and others who may be called upon in the future to examine or search for radioactive deposits. Some generaliza- tions regarding the Canadian deposits are included, but many of these are necessarily tentative. The information contained in the paper is up to date for the end of 1948. The information contained in this paper has been derived from many sources. Much of it is from the records of the Canadian government-owned Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and from examinations of government and private properties made by officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. Some information on privately-owned properties has been quoted from other sources mentioned in the text. The information has been assembled by W. F. James of Eldorado Mining and Refining (1944) Limited and A. H. Lang of the Geological Survey of Canada, who have written the sections for which they are credited. The description of the Eldorado mine is based on reports by Richard Murphy, formerly chief geologist for Eldorado; the report by Mr. Murphy was published previously by the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,' to whom the writers are indebted for permission to repub-lish. The section dealing with the geology of and development work in the Goldfields area, where Eldorado has important holdings, is by S. N. Kesten, field geologist for Eldorado. The geological diagram of the Goldfields area (fig. 2) was kindly supplied by A. M. Christie of the Geological Survey of Can-

Jan 1, 1951

By Frank G. Snyder, Paul E. Gerdemann

The Southeast Missouri lead district, located about 70 miles south of St. Louis, embraces four important sub-districts and several minor ones. The important sub-districts, in order of discovery, are Mine La Motte, the Old Lead Belt, Indian Creek, and the Viburnum Lead Belt. Descriptions that follow are of geology and ore deposits of the Old Lead Belt. The ore deposits are stratiform in character and are localized in a narrow carbonate bar and algal reef environment on the flanks of exposed Precambrian of the St. Francois Mountains. Ore structures include a variety of primary depositional features such as pinchout zones, disconformities, ridge structures, reefs, and submarine gravity slides. Faulting, prior to and during ore deposition, "prepared" the host rock and strongly fractured areas are mineralized much more intensively and extensively than unfractured parts of the same sedimentary structures. The deposits are epigenetic in character. Mineralization is believed to have occurred at the time that post-lower Ordovician faulting took place. The mineralizing solutions are believed to be concentrated brines from adjacent basins that moved out of the basins during faulting, uplift, and erosion of the St. Francois positive area.

Jan 1, 1968

By W. Hurst

The authors of this paper, in substituting values in a material balance equation associated with a gas reserve and a water drive, cannot find sustainment of what the gas in place should be; therefore, their conclusion is that this type of problem dealing with gas reservoirs is insoluble. They have introduced the word, "cybernetics," based on the work of Norbert Wiener, that further extends this line of reasoning, namely, to the effect that the system is a "black box", and that the gas reservoir and aquifer can take on infinite aspects 'based upon their past performance, to quote the authors. The inference is that this black box is an unknown. which permits in computer programming to subscribe as many variables as possible to observe by adjustment of one to another those combinations of conditions that fit field behavior. This may satisfy those in this discipline whose dedication is to programming, but to the others this is a comparison to the rationalization of the combinational results of the throwing of dice—a probability procedure. In reservoir engineering we are more direct. We learn from the examination of individual we'll and field data exactly what is in this black box. I now come to the impasse that has confronted these authors in their machine calculations. In this I have reproduced from their own production data (Tables 1 and 2 of their paper) pressure vs cumulative gas produced. shown as Figs. D-1 through D-5. A perusal of any of these five plots, for the corresponding fields in the Po Valley, shows the straight-line relation of pressure vs gas produced, evidencing pressure depletion. The point I make is that in their fundamental production data, there is no variance from a straight line that can support a water drive.

By Roger C. Ilsley

The $2.1 billion Milwaukee Water Pollution Abatement Program (MWAP) requires the construction of several miles of underground openings at depths up to 350 feet for the conveyance and storage of sewage and storm water overflows. The system will include approximately 27km (17 miles) of deep tunnels ranging from 3m (10 f t.) to 9m (30 f t.) in diameter, 26 shafts and a pumping station cavern. The facilities will be located primarily in Silurian Age dolomites of the Niagara Group. The rock is characterized as competent with vertical to sub-vertical orthogonal jointing and predominantly thin shale bedding planes. The site investigation was carried out incrementally, commencing on an area wide basis, becoming site specific as facility plans were developed. To achieve cost savings through uniformity and continuity, a computerized data bank was established. Software was developed during the initial stages of the program for the production of borehole logs, structure contour maps, geologic profiles and summaries of data for statistical evaluations. This paper discusses in general terms the collection, compilation and presentation of data necessary for the characterization of the rock mass.

Jan 1, 1984

By K. L. Ludeke, A. D. Day

For many reasons, it appears that deep rooted, perennial shrubs offer potential for improved stabilization and provide maintenance free vegetative cover to harsh sites where perennial grasses have not been successful. The major objective was to select various shrub species of arid plants for initial soil stabilization of disturbed mining areas. The very fact that a drought-adapted shrub has a massive root system that can use moisture from a greater volume of mineral waste soil materials suggests that arid environment disturbed soils may be vegetatively stabilized using desirable forage shrubs. A secondary effort is underway to assemble information and plant materials of promising species from many arid regions of the world for reclamation of mined lands. Surprisingly, many of the better plants for arid sites are quite high in protein content. With proper management, breeding, and selection, they may prove to be very desirable livestock feed when mined lands are used in range land areas. Advancements in arid land solid waste stabilization hold favorable promise for many industries that mine and mill in arid regions for effective reclamation of disturbed areas. Particularly exciting is the possibility of establishment of high density maintenance free vegetative cover of climax vegetation that reclaims the disturbed area back to its original land use. Due to high shrub productivity, stabilization potential, nutritional quality, and reclamation success, greater use should be made of shrubs in disturbed land reclamation associated with mining and milling operations in harsh aril environments.

Jan 1, 1986

This excellent, concise paper by Dr. Iwasaki on the principles of selective flocculation for iron ores discusses many of the principles and problems which have occurred in our bench and pilot plant test-work. The use of sodium tripolyphosphate in combination with sodium silicate as a dispersant is very effective. However, this may cause a problem with the environmental groups as phosphorous is a nutrient. We have also established that the lower the Ca level in the pulp solutions the greater the dispersion. We have found that ores from the same geological strata, having the same general mineralogy and iron content will sometimes have widely different degrees of dispersion. There was-no difference in the gross mineralogy but the solubility of the Ca and SO ions was much less in the ores most easily dispersed. Research efforts should be directed towards a more practical means which would more easily enable one to predict the amount of dispersant required for the various ores. With regard to water quality we have found that waters having higher contents of SO4 and C1 ions hinder dispersion. This could be a method of controlling too much dispersion by the addition of sulfate or chloride ions. This would require further investigation. We have had no trouble with agitation speeds of up to 925 rpm in conditioning starch with the dispersed pulp prior to selective flocculation. We have found about 0.3Lb/LT of starch to be sufficient for selective flocculation on our ores. The increasing of the starch to 1.25Lb/LT has had no effect on the metallurgy of the selective floccula-

Jan 1, 1979

E. O?C. Acker Jinzoc Adachi Truman H. Aldrich Walter H. Aldridge Anson W. Allen John H. Allen William R. Appleby W. Lawrence Austin W. S. Ayres David Baker John Henry Banks Henry C. Banon Alonzo F. Bardwell Walter A. Barrows H.C. Bellinger Wm de L. Benedict Robert Bentley John F. Berry Andrew A Blair George D. Blood Charles A. Bohn Walter M. Brodie Elwin F. Brown Fredrick Burbidge H.H. Burden Charles Butters

Jan 1, 1944

THE CHAIRMAN (J. W. RICHARDS, South Bethlehem, Pa.)-The first point on which I wish to speak is that sufficient attention has not been given to the quality of the ores, in estimating the reserves. I made this same criticism of the work on the iron-ore resources of the world issued by

Jan 12, 1918

By C. E. Lesher

Low-TEMPERATURE carbonization needs no introduction to the literature on coal. This paper will attempt no review of that literature; it tells the story of the commercial development of one of the processes for carbonizing coal at so-called low temperatures, dealing with the technology and economics of the process rather than with the design of equipment. The process used is that covered by the patents of C. B. Wisner, with improvements and changes made by the Pittsburgh Coal Carbonization Co. The important and novel feature of the process is the phenomenon of making the product in ball form (Fig. 1). Melting coal dust into smokeless solid fuel in an apparatus as simple as a revolving cylinder of ordinary mild steel has been proved to be practical. Furthermore, it has been found that the process has a wide application, for by applying a knowledge of why and how this balling action is accomplished, the apparatus can be designed and adapted to treat any coal that has a certain minimum agglutinating property. The operating plant is 20 miles west of Pittsburgh, adjacent to the Champion preparation plant of the Pittsburgh Coal Co. The coal used is cleaned minus 3/8 -in- or finer sizes. The products are low-tem-perature coke, tar and tar products. Present capacity is 7000 tons per month of low-temperature coke and 140,000 gal, of tar. There is no surplus gas for sale, and none of the light oils are stripped from the gas. The coke is marketed in two sizes, 1 to 2 in. and 1 to 6 in., through retail coal dealers for domestic con-sumption in hand-fired furnaces, and for fireplace fuel. The smaller size is bagged by dealers. Crude tar and many distillates and road tars are sold.

Jan 1, 1940

By G. Sachs, E. J. Ripling, S. I. Liu, J. J. Lynch

INTRODUCTION IT is a generally recognized fact that by repeated straining the fracture stress of any metal is reduced to a fraction of its value for static loading. The value of this fatigue strength depends upon numerous factors, such as the states of strain and stress, the limits of straining, and the number of repeated loadings or cycles.1.2,3 The large volume of previous investigations on fatigue is concerned entirely with large numbers of cycles, say exceeding 10,000 and up to 500,000,000. However, the changes in fracture stress and fracture strain occurring after a small number of repeated loadings have attracted little attention. Apparently the only investigations of this type are those byLudwik4,5 who subjected steel, copper, and aluminum wire to repeated torsion. In each test the torque was varied between identical values in the two directions of twisting. Depending upon the magnitude of the moment, fracturing occurred after a number of cycles, up to 10,000. The results of Ludwik's tests will be discussed later. Such torsion does not readily yield actual stress and strain values. Therefore a preliminary study was made of the effects of repeated direct stresses, i.e., tension and compression stresses. Because such tests are considerably more tedious than torsion tests, only high stresses were used in the preliminary work, yielding definite changes in metal properties after a few cycles. It was found in these tests that strains could be controlled more readily than stresses in the investigated range of high stresses. This paper, consequently, deals with the effects of strains of equal magnitude but different signs. The metal was first prestrained in static tension by a certain amount then subjected to compression to yield the same amount of strain after unloading. This loading cycle was repeated up to a maximum of seven times. After various cycles, the stress-strain curves in tension were determined, up to fracturing. As material for these tests, the aluminum alloy 24ST was selected because it exhibits a comparatively small amount of necking in the tension test. This alloy permitted, therefore, rather accurate control at the high strains necessary to produce fatigue failures at less than seven cycles. The results of this investigation appear sufficiently interesting to extend the method of attack in various directions. It is intended to study (I) the effects of cycles up to a few thousands and (2) the effects of strains of different magnitude in tension and compression, respectively. The latter variable also includes as a special case the effects of compressive strains.

Jan 1, 1948

Jan 1, 1897

By L. J. Boucher

The beneficiation process at Northampton is described and reasons are given for installing a flotation plant. The economics of running the plant, the difficulties of operation, and subsequent remedial action are discussed.

Jan 3, 1953

By Nelson Severinghaus

Mineral fillers have been defined as inert materials that are included in a composition for some useful purpose. Because this definition and the scope of this review are not specific-indeed, exceptions abound-accurate total statistics are unavailable. One source estimates the total production in the United States in 1979 at 11.3 Mt (12.5 million st) valued at $534 million, averaging $49.19 per ton. Included are a broad group of minerals-asbestos, barite, bentonite, ground limestone and dolomite, clays, diatomite, feldspar, micas, silica, talc. Additional references will be made to synthetic mineral-derived fillers such as aluminum hydrate, precipitated calcium carbonate, and pyrogenic and precipitated silicas and silicates. A section on related uses at the end of this chapter covers absorbents and filters. Mineral fillers can be included in compounds to accomplish a variety of final results. Hardness, brittleness, impact strength, compressive strength, softening point, fire resistance, surface texture, electrical conductivity, and a host of other physical characteristics may be modified by the inclusion of fillers. These effects are the result of properties of the fillers, including chemical activity, hardness, particle size, shape and distribution, surface structure, color, density, and refractive index. To facilitate an overview of the mineral filler industry, this chapter will review the general usage of fillers, the inherent characteristics that intensify their utilization, and similarly their manufactured characteristics. Major using industries will then be examined in detail. Specific information on deposits and processing for industrial minerals will be found in the appropriate commodity chapter. All of these same minerals have additional significant uses based on their chemical composition or other characteristics. References will be found in other use chapters and summarized in commodity chapters. The chart in Table 1, updated from the 4th edition of Industrial Minerals and Rocks, illustrates the major mineral fillers (both natural and manufactured) and their more important end uses. Use of Mineral Fillers Archaeologists have found that more than 5000 years ago, bitumen used for mortar and waterproofing contained mineral contaminants that acted as fillers. Since that time man has added mineral products to compounds to improve certain characteristics. Perhaps the most common objective of filler usage is reduction of cost of the end product. Certainly the inclusion of a filler that costs 2¢ per 0.45 kg (lb) will reduce the cost of a plastic product whose resin costs 50¢ per 0.45 kg (lb). But the decision to use a specific filler is not that simple. It may "soak up" binder, making a compound more viscous and perhaps preventing its flow into a mold as an injection molding compound, but similarly will give good anti-sag characteristics to putty, caulking compound, or undercoating. Fillers may be incorporated to modify: 1) Cost 2) Physical characteristics 3) Flow characteristics 4) Fire resistance 5) Density 6) Heat conductivity 7) Color or brightness and opacity 8) Hardness, brittleness, impact strength 9) Deformity, viscosity, softening point 10) Processing problems 11) Electrical conductivity 12) Surface texture 13) Thermal expansion characteristics 14) Abrasion resistance

Jan 1, 1983