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By Halbert Powers Gillette

In every chemical reaction heat is either developed or absorbed, and this plus or minus heat of formation is as definite in quantity as the weights of the reacting elements. In this paper I shall show that each chemical element and each chemical radical has its own definite heat-valency,—a fact which, so far as I know, has hitherto escaped the attention of investigators, but, I feel sure, will be admitted after the demonstration here given, and may lead to some practical conclusions of value. When Berthelotys " law of maximum work " was found to have so many inexplicable exceptions, the pendulum of a scientific theory swung away from a recognition of the truth underlying that proposition; and this reaction went so far that not only has thermal chemistry been relatively neglected by recent investigators, but it is not uncommon now to find textbooks on physical chemistry which practically ignore all that Thomsen, Berthelot and others have done. To this temporary tendency of thought I attribute the failure to recognize the principles herein announced and explained. Not long ago, while studying tables of the formation-heat of various salts, I noticed that in this respect all potassium salts in solution differ from the corresponding sodium salts by 9.3 cal.1 I found also that similar differences exist between other salts, not only when the basic radical is varied, while the acid radical remains constant, but also when the acid radical is the variable. Thus chlorine salts in solution differ from bromine salts in this respect by 10.9 cal. Upon further study, I found that Thomsen had noted similar constant differences, but, so far as I can ascertain, he appears to have attached no great significance thereto.

Jan 1, 1904

By V. R. Garfias

A survey of the resources of mineral fuels, coal, petroleum and natural gas presupposes a clear distinction between the known amount underground and the "proven reserves"; the'portion that can be economically brought to the surface and made available for utilization. Only a fraction of the coal and petroleum in producing fields is or can be economically brought to the surface and not all of this is economically utilized; also, although practically all the natural gas can be economically recovered and utilized, in actual practice a large part of the total volume that reaches the mouth of the wells is wantonly blown into the air and wasted. It is thus estimated that of the total amount of coal underground about 40 per cent remains unrecovered, or is otherwise wasted, before it reaches the consumer; that only some 25 per cent of the petroleum in proven fields is actually brought to the surface; and that even if practically the entire volume of natural gas can be economically utilized, in actual practice close to 25 per cent of the total produced is now absolutely wasted. And the dissipation of this gas, unwarranted as it is, not only diminishes the gas supply but diminishes also the proven reserves of petroleum from such fields as the Panhandle of Texas, where petroleum and natural gas are produced simultaneously. Many factors affect the estimates of the proven reserves of mineral fuels, such as the capacity and nature of the reservoir, its depth, the quality of the product, the efficiency of recovery, the price of the fuel and its byproducts, etc., etc., but superseding at times all of these in connection with petroleum and natural gas deposits is the effect of "subsoil ownership" on the rate and methods of exploitation of the deposits. As a result it should be a comparatively simple matter to eliminate waste and overproduction, and thereby increase the proven reserves of petroleum and natural gas, in Russia, Iran and Iraq, where the subsoil rights are nationalized, or in any country in which there is or can be quickly established an effective legal control of the underground deposits and the manner of their exploitation. It has been and it is now, on the other hand, almost an impossible undertaking to intelligently regulate the petroleum and natural gas production in the United

Jan 1, 1935

By F. J. Longworth

FoR a number of years an intensive study has been made to improve the blast-furnace practice at Copperhill not only as to cost% but to provide a good grade of gas for the acid plants. This study took us back to the fundamentals of successful pyrite smelting; namely, a blast furnace working on a clean sulfide ore, free from fines, and the use of quartz high in silica as a flux. In 1919, the quality of the flux was improved and its effect on the metallurgy was very marked. To improve the practice further, it was necessary to work out some method of treatment for the sulfide fines and the siliceous and refractory ores, other than in the blast furnace. A series of milling tests indicated that these products could be successfully treated by differential flotation, and in 1922 plans were made and a flotation plant built. It was estimated that the flotation plant would deliver to the smelter 40 to 50 tons of concentrates per day; the problem was what to do with these concentrates. It was out of the question to attempt to smelt them in a blast furnace because of the dust losses and because our practice demands a charge free from fines for satisfactory operation. There is no custom smelter in the vicinity to which concentrates may be sold, pending the time when the tonnage will be sufficient to warrant roasters and a reverbatory furnace. Sintering and nodulizing were investigated but neither method fitted into our scheme of metallurgy. A close study of the converter practice was then made to see if some method could not be evolved to smelt this tonnage of concentrates in a converter without preliminary treatment. At that time, the converter installation consisted of two 12-ft. Great Falls converters, which were handling 12 to 14 per cent. matte. The heat balance of the converters working with 12 to 14 per cent. matte was more than sufficient to smelt the contemplated tonnage of concentrates but the mechanical difficulties of feeding fines into the Great Falls converter made the use of this type of converter impractical. While there was no opportunity to experiment with the Pierce-Smith converter, equipped with a Garr gun, theoretically it seemed practical

Jan 1, 1925

By F. E. Marcy

It is not my purpose to write a lengthy article or to attempt the solution of the problem I am presenting, but to call attention to what I believe an important issue, hoping that it may arouse in some one, or in some company, a sense of responsibility. I am referring particularly to modern up-to-date milling plants discharging tailings which under existing conditions cannot be further treated or from which a recovery cannot be made at a profit, but where a quantitative and qualitative analysis shows that a portion of these tailings might profitably be treated at some future time when our metallurgical knowledge has advanced, when we have cheaper power, chemicals, labor or other advantageous conditions. Early Methods In our early milling methods very little attention was given to the care of tailings. It was thought that if the mill could be located by a stream or a river where the final disposal of the tailings could be forever lost sight of, it was highly desirable. We can now see and estimate what was lost in these rich tailings, not recoverable from the streams and the great rivers. Fortunately for many, the depositing of tailings in these streams and rivers was objected to by the farmers and finally prohibited by the State Legislatures. In looking back over our past milling methods, it seems that the first endeavor was to make the maximum amount of money for a particular period, or year, regardless of the future, the depletion of the mine, or the conservation of the total mineral content. The dumping and sluicing of 3000 tons per day, for a period of many years, of a copper tailing carrying 12 lb. of recoverable copper together with its portion of precious metals, the thousands of tons of valuable metal contained in the tailings that have been carried away by Silver Bow Creek, the streams of the Coeur d'Alene, the Flat River and Colorado districts, the enormous quantities

Jan 1, 1918

By James Douglas

An address before the Meeting of the New York Section, Nov. 4, 1914. As life advances one is inclined to look backward instead of forward, and the vista over which my memory carries me has been filled with such a shifting panorama of changes in metallurgy that the whole practice of the art seems to have been re-created. The first cupola furnace that I saw in operation was at one of the group of mines at Capelton, Quebec, from which the Nichols company still draws some of its sulphur supply. At that time it was operated by a Hartford, Conn., company, under a General Adams. When its small brick furnaces made a campaign of a week and smelted 10 tons a day, the feat redounded to the credit of the operator. The introduction of the water-jacketed cupola dates forward to the next decade. I was using one in Pennsylvania, making copper matte, to the horror of a noted metallurgist, who could not conceive it possible that you. could bring fused sulphides in contact with steel without rapid corrosion. In our ignorance we were doing what seemed to be an impossibility, and it is just that recklessness and disregard for precedent which has characterized so much of the work of American metallurgists, and carried us forward at such headlong speed. Once the water jacket was accepted as the type of the. copper cupola, its almost unlimited expansion in length, but not in width, was a matter of convenience rather than of skill. In Butte the cupolas have been enlarged by adding furnace to furnace. The first reverberatories which I saw in operation were those in Professor Hill's Black Hawk establishment, where the concentrates from the Gilpin County gold mills were run down into matte for separation in England. Sixty dollars per ton was the usual deduction in those days before gold and silver was paid for. Smelting was done with wood as fuel, and the capacity of the furnace was about 10 tons per diem. Shortly after this Professor Hill formed an alliance with Richard Pearce, who was running what, if I recollect aright, was called the Swansea Works, at the bend of the river approaching Georgetown.

Jan 4, 1915

By E. W. Schilling

THE separation of hematite by hysteretic repulsion was first brought to the attention of the public in 1922, by W. M. Mordey1. Three years later another paper2 was published and after another four years a third paper3 appeared in the South African publications. Certain data were lacking in these papers. In order to continue the work intelligently a knowledge of the shapes of the hysteresis curves for certain minerals was very necessary. This information was not available until the present year4. It was known that reduction of certain ores rendered them amenable to this process of separation but definite data in the form of curves showing exactly the effect of such treatment were lacking. Prob-ably our best source of information on the separation of minerals by the use of alternating-current magnetic fields today is the reports from the U. S. Bureau of Mines 5-7. It is not the purpose of this paper to tell the reader in detail how to make a commercial separator. Experimental models have recently been made 7 and the results obtained have been so good that it is the opinion of the authors that the public will soon take an active interest in the subject and its development. The writers have constructed a separator that is considerably different in construction and operation from the two types described by Mr. Davis. This will be described, but the real purpose of this paper is to outline certain experiments and give curves showing data that have a fundamental bearing upon the practical construction of a separator of this type.

Jan 1, 1935

By R. T. Bayliss

Although every mill-man of even limited experience in the amalgamation of gold-ores is probably aware that copper plates will in time become coated by the accumulation of gold-amalgam, it may be that many do not know to what extent this accumulation occurs in the treatment of ores dissimilar to those with which they are familiar, and under conditions foreign to those with which they have to contend in any given locality. The writer, therefore, feels relieved from the necessity of offering an apology for dealing with such an elementary subject, believing that certain facts in reference thereto, which have recently come under his personal observation, will be interesting to many, and possibly instructive to some persons engaged in the amalgamation of gold-ores. The facts hereinafter stated were observed in the 50-stamp "combination"-mill, owned by the Montana Mining Company, Limited, of England, operating the Drum Lummon mine, situated at Marysville, Montana. The material treated in this mill consists of quartz and ores of somewhat variable character, containing gold and silver in native form, as well as in chemical union with the sulphides of iron and copper. There is also present a little lead, some arsenic and antimony, and a little zinc. The last fair minerals, however, are of irregular occurrence, and but sparingly distributed throughout the ore, and yield only a trace in the analysis of the average material in this mill. The free gold, which is in a condition of fine division, and rarely visible to the naked eye, carries silver as an alloy; and the native silver, which is only occasionally observed, is present in the richer ores in wireand in leaf-form. Of the two precious metals, the ore worked during the past three years and ten months, the period under review, contained about 1/2-ounce of gold, and from 7 to 12 ounces of silver, per ton of 2000 pounds.

Jan 1, 1897

By C. R. Breck

THERE has been a running discussion over the-past several years with respect to the life and adequacy of our natural gas reserves.. Some of the experts agree on one phase of the subject at least--that eventually it will be necessary to augment deliveries of natural gas in the northern markets by the development of a more or less comparable synthetic gas made from coal. The purpose of this paper is to point out: 1. It may be later than a good many people think-the demand for additional domestic and commercial pipeline gas in at least one section of the North will probably be felt rather keenly before an adequate synthetic pipeline-gas project, developed on economic lines, could be completed, even if ' initiated in the near future. 2. The evidence is considerable that such a project would be technically sound and economically self-supporting, although the margin of profit at first might be so small and the magnitude of an economic enterprise so great that financing would be impossible without Government aid in some form or other. The part of the country referred to is the heavily populated section in the northeast of the United States. To simplify an examination of the situation, let us take the potential marketing areas within range to the north and east of the three pipelines: 1. Tennessee Gas Transmission Co. as it enters Erie County, New York state. 2. Texas Eastern Transmission Corporation just before the tap that supplies the general Philadelphia area. 3. Transcontinental G& Pipe Line Corporation as it enters the state of New Jersey The sources of gas for these three pipelines are in Texas and Louisiana. The ultimate maximum combined capacity of the three lines at the points stated is approximately 1,200,000,000 cu ft per 24 hr at the maximum load factor probable of attainment in normal operation. The areas supplied by the three lines north and east of the points stated, or assumed as eventual markets, are: 1. Central New York state, from Buffalo to Albany (both inclusive).

Jan 1, 1953

By E. S. Shaw

Utah continues as a very unimportant factor in oil and gas production. During the year 1933 there were no developments of noteworthy significance. There were no completions of either producers or dry holes during the year. The only commercial production in Utah has been from the five fields listed in Table 1 and mentioned briefly in the following paragraphs. Virgin Field.—Oil was first discovered in 1907 in a well drilled in sec. 13, T.41S., R.12W. Of the first 15 wells drilled, all but three were failures. In 1920 production from four wells from 550 to 600 ft. deep was about 20 bbl. per day. San Juan Field.—The majority of drilling in this area was done during the years 1908 to 1911. Probably the first commercial well in the field was that drilled in NW.$i sec. 6, T.42S1 R.l9E., in 1909. Farnham Dome.—The discovery well was drilled by the Utah Oil Refining Co. in April, 1923. A number of years later a second well was drilled by The Carbon Dioxice a mica1 Co., the present operator, which markets the gas in the manufacture of "dry ice" and allied products. The eslimated production, as indicated in Table 1, includes 500 million cubic feet estimated to have been lost while drilling the discovery well. Cisco Dome.—The discovery well was drilled by The Utah Oil Refining Co. in November, 1924. The Crystal Carbon Co. markets the gas in the manufacture of carbon black. Ashley Valley Dome.—The discovery well was drilled by the Utah Oil Refining Co. in April, 1925. The Uintah Gas Co. markets the gas in Vernal, Utah, for fuel. Woodside Structure.—In February, 1924, gas was discovered in a well drilled by Utah Oil Refining Co. in sec. 12, T.l9S., R.l3N., on the Woodside structure. This gas is reported to contain an appreciable amount of helium. It is being held as a helium reserve by the United States Government. Salt Valley Structure.—The test of the Utah Southern Oil Co. in sec. 31, T.23S., R.21E., on the Salt Valley structure has been shut down for some time at 6120 ft. This test has passed through more than 5000 ft.

Jan 1, 1934

Development: Iron Ore In Peru Utah Construction Co., of San Francisco and a Peruvian Government corporation have signed an agreement for development of a large iron orebody in Peru. Most tests show 60 pct iron or better. Most of the ore is magnetite. Although ore will be shipped mainly to Eastern U. S. blast furnaces, shipments to the West Coast may develop as the orebody opens up. The construction firm indicated three American steel companies have shown interest in the project. The orebody is located 300 miles south of Lima and about 15 miles from the coast at the same longitude as New York City. Allen D. Christensen, executive vice-president of Utah Construction noted that the distance is shorter between Peru and the East Coast. The ore deposit measures about four to five miles in one direction and 10 miles in the other. As many as 15 outcroppings within these limits have been reported. Several of the outcroppings are thousands of feet long by several hundred feet wide, Christensen said. Shipments between 100,000 and 200,000 tons of ore per month are projected by the company. Cost of opening the mine to production may go over $5 million, Christensen said. It would include building of docks for ocean going vessels, housing, and heavy duty mining and processing equipment. The contract with the Peruvian government gives Utah Construction six to eight months for additional tests and a 20 year concession for mining the orebody. Peru will collect royalties on all ore. The company will also supply about 300,000 tons per year for an electric furnace to be installed by the Peruvian Government at Chimbote. No steel is produced in Peru now. Utah Construction formed the Argonaut Mining Co. last year, and was shipping iron ore from British Columbia to Japan at a rate of more than 50,000 tons a month, before winter weather decreased operations.

Jan 1, 1952

By H. B. Fuqua, B. E. Thompson

The area discussed herein, commonly known as the North Texas district, embraces the following 10 counties: Archer, Baylor, Clay, Cooke, Foard, Hardeman, Knox, Montague, Wichita and Wilbarger. It is underlain by two major structural features. The northernmost portion of the district, including Cooke, Montague, northern Clay, Wichita, Wilbarger, Foard and Hardeman counties, is underlain by the system of buried mountains known as the Red River uplift, which is parallel to and closely related to the Wichita-Amarillo uplift of Oklahoma and the Texas Panhandle. While the presence of a great majority of the numerous oil fields of the area is traceable to this feature, the production in Archer, southwestern Clay and southeastern Baylor counties is due to the influence of what is known as the Cisco Arch (so called because of its influence on Cisco deposition), the axis of which extends in a north\lest-southeast direction across Archer County. Discussion of Tables Preliminary to discussing developments during the year 1933, it appears advisable to offer a few words of explanation on Tables 1 and 2, included as part of this paper, in which an effort has been made to sumlllarize oil and gas development in North Texas to Jan. 1, 1934. One of the chief objectives of this publication is understood to be to show production by individual pools, and, if possible, by distinct pays in a pool. This the authors haw been unable to do for North Texas. It is a generally recognized fact that there are well over 100 individual pools, which should perhaps be mow properly called "productive spots," in Archer county alone, with perhaps an even greater number in Wichita County. It can be found upon investigation that an apparently continuous productive area covering Many acres consists of a half dozen lenticular sands, all stratigraphically different,, which produce only under portions of the apparently continuous area. It is also a fact that practically all gross production records are carried by the various intcrcsted parties by major districts or by counties. It is obvious therefore

Jan 1, 1934

By F. L. Wolf

THERE is a tendency on the part of practical foundrymen to accept with reluctance the results of tests on sands, binders, and. such materials made in the chemical laboratory alone. They feel that such tests frequently emphasize and measure properties that are of minor importance and fail to take account of characteristics that are important in determining the value of the material in actual practice. Experience seems to indicate that the most thorough and conclusive, test for any new foundry material is an actual run in the foundry alongside of a standard material of known value. Such a test, however, involves certain difficulties and necessitates certain precautions. It is not always easy to obtain a fair trial for a new material. We all have certain prejudices, which unconsciously affect our judgment to a marked degree. A practical test frequently involves so many workmen, each of whom reacts in a different manner to the test, that; the personal equation becomes very, complex and the true results of the test are obscured. There are times, too, when a thorough experimental trial of a material would interfere too much with the rush of work in a department or would hazard the quality, of the product to such an extent as to make it inadvisable. Under such conditions a laboratory test is advisable before the material is sent into the foundry. These tests should be made as practical as possible and so closely related to foundry practice as to give a true index to the value of a, product for the purpose desired. Core sands and molding sands are as numerous "as the sands of the sea" and vary as much in quality. Old sources of supply are continually failing and new ones must be opened, so that we must continually search for new and better grades of sand. During the past year, the Ohio Brass Co. has developed tests for sands', cores, and binders which bear a close relation to the particular use to which these materials are put in

Jan 9, 1920

The U. S. Navy Department has perfected plans for the enrollment and training of considerable numbers of engineering officers. A school for this purpose, the U. S. Navy Steam Engineering School, has been established by the Department at Hoboken, N. J. The school is open to men between the ages of 21 and 40 who meet the physical requirements of the Navy, who are of thorough ability and officer-like character and who have completed the mechanical or electrical engineering course at certain recognized technical schools, or who possess an education and experience adjudged to be an equivalent thereof. Enrollment in the U. Naval Reserve Force of men properly qualified may be made at any Naval enrolling office, notation being made of the applicant's qualifications and desire to be detailed to this school. Applicants will be enrolled as Chief Machinist Mates, and during the course of instruction will draw the pay of this rating, $83 per month, plus $60 per month paid as subsistence. Upon graduation, men will be commissioned as Ensigns in the U. S. Naval Reserve, with a salary of $1700 per year. The duty to which a graduate of this school will be assigned will be that of an engineer officer in the auxiliary service of the Navy. Special provision has been made for the continuance of the school with proper material by a Navy regulation which permits undergraduates of the Freshman, Sophomore, and Junior Classes in recognized engineering schools to enroll in the Naval Reserve Force with the rating of Seaman 2d Class, and continue their courses at the institutions where they have matriculated. Such men will be called into active service after their graduation, and can at that time, if they are qualified to pass an officers' physical examination, apply for admission to the U. S. Navy Steam Engineering School. Men who are registered in the draft, either graduates or undergraduates, may enroll with the proper enrolling officer by securing from their draft board a letter of release, which in all probability can be obtained for this purpose. The aim of this school is not simply to produce engineers, but to produce naval engineering officers in the true sense of the word. The course of instruction covers a period of five months, arranged in four periods.

Jan 10, 1918

By Ezequiel Ordonez

I HAVE read ill the Bulletin (May, '1914) a paper by H. von Höfer relating to the Origin of Petroleum, in which the author supports his and Engler's views, expressed before, of the organic origin of petroleum. Von Höfer pronounces strongly against the hypothesis of the volcanic origin of hydrocarbons, as particularly advocated by Eugene Coste. In Mr. Coste's articles, so well known by the public, he refers incidentally to our Mexican oil occurrences, especially of the Gulf coast, as proofs of the volcanic origin of the oils. This belief comes from the fact that, in our Mexican oil fields of the east coast, the majority of the producing wells are located near volcanic necks (remnants of small volcanoes, mainly of the explosive type), or near certain gibbosities in shales, resembling mounds, some of which' are really uplifts due to volcanic forces or to abortive eruptions. The first attempt to explain the oil coming up around volcanic necks in Mexico, was made by me in a small article1 published in 1905, soon after the investigation ordered by the Mexican government as to the outlook of the Mexican Gulf coast as a future oil producer. When E. L. Doheny of Los Angeles, Cal., and I located the first producing well of Mexico, I was also the first to predict the great future of the oil industry in Mexico, just at the time when the government and some Mexican geologists felt rather pessimistic. The Mexican investors and the general public, as a result of these discouragements, did not pay attention to this important source of common wealth until recent days. The realization of the value of this source of wealth has been so sudden that we are menaced by the consequences brought about by a great boom. It was quite impossible, about five years ago, to induce Mexican capitalists to invest money in oil lands. So the few large foreign companies operating since the beginning, easily secured large holdings, in spite of the trouble frequently resulting from faulty titles or ownership.

Jan 10, 1914

By O. H. Hahn Eureka

I HAVE lately had occasion to conduct a campaign at the works of the Empire City Company, in Railroad District, Elko County, Nevada, which, if not highly satisfactory, was at least very interesting in a technical point of view, and which I therefore think worthy of communication to the Institute. The lead ores in this district occur in lenticular masses along and near the contact of crystalline limestone with a dioritic porphyry, and consist of argentiferous carbonate of lead and galena, the latter occurring in solid blocks, or in ribbons running through the limestone. Associated with these are silicate, carbonate, and suboxide of copper, and brown and calc-spar. Adding to this, that the proportion of galena in the ore is small, and that no iron pyrites exists in the district, it is at once evident that the ore-mixture is difficult to treat. For a successful reduction by smelting, it would be necessary to introduce into the charge : 1. The proper quantities of sulphur-bearing ingredients, to effect a complete separation of copper and lead ; and, 2. Sufficient silica and iron oxide, to form with the lime and magnesia of the ore, a slag of the required fluidity. The first condition could be fulfilled only very imperfectly, there being no iron pyrites in Railroad, nor in the surrounding districts. The nearest occurrence is in Battle Mountain, whence a supply could not be procured in time. The second condition, i. e., the addition of iron ore and quartz, was easily complied with, there being an abundance of these materials in the vicinity. The furnace of the Empire City Company, is a small shaft¬furnace, with an area of hearth of six square feet, and is supplied with blast by a No. 4 Root blower. In spite of this small size the furnace smelted during this campaign, which lasted 31 days, an average of 28 tons of ore, and 13 tons of fluxes, together 41 tons of charge, per twenty-four hours. The following tables give the complete data in regard to the smelting process, and the results obtained

Jan 1, 1875

By Felix Shay

THE Agua Fria mine is in eastern Honduras at Lat. 140° 06' N., Long. 86° 36' W. Danli, the seat of the local municipal government, is the nearest town. The property is approximately 44 miles east of Teguci-galpa, the terminus of a truck road from the Pacific coast. The mine lies at an altitude of 3300 ft. with surrounding elevations as high as 6000 feet. For 20 years the oxidized croppings of the Agua Fria vein had been worked intermittently when in 1927 an attempt was made to open the property. A shaft was sunk 300 ft. and considerable ore was blocked out, but before a mill could be installed financial difficulties arose and the mine reverted to the original owners. Erle P. Halliburton, of Los Angeles, purchased the property in 1934. At that time a careful consideration of all factors involved showed that air transport was the only practical method of moving the equipment and machinery necessary to commence production. The other alternative was by muleback, which required sectionalizing all equipment to a maximum load of 200 lb., and during the rainy season this type of freighting was subject to serious delays. It was decided to purchase a trimotor Ford powered by three Pratt and Whitney Wasp B motors developing 400 hp. each. There were several reasons for the choice: (1) this type of plane was available at a reasonable price, owing to its replacement by faster models on most of the airlines in the United States; (2) the ship was capable of carrying a pay load of 3000 lb. over the required distance; (3) since this airplane had been widely used there would be no difficulty in securing competent personnel or in purchasing spare parts. It was necessary to rebuild the plane for cargo service. The windows were removed and the fuselage was entirely covered. A hatch was cut in the top of the fuselage to receive heavy crane loads and pieces of freight that were too large or too long to go through the rear door. The seats were removed and the interior of the plane was lined with Duralumin sheets. A heavy-duty landing gear was installed and the floor was reinforced.

Jan 1, 1940

By P. H. Mell

AMONG the minerals exhibited at the Atlanta Exhibition of 1881, soapstone, kaolin, and asbestos were well represented. The first two occur in large quantities, of very pure quality, throughout the South. The last is somewhat limited in amount, yet in certain localities it exists in masses sufficiently large to pay for working; in North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama it has been mined with some profit. I would, in this paper, call special attention to the minerals soapstone and kaolin, because their many valuable qualities seem to have been al most entirely overlooked by our Southern manufacturers. Steatite, particularly, occurs in such large quantities, and generally in such close proximity to the great iron regions of Alabama and Georgia, that it is amazing that the iron companies will persist in sending abroad under. heavy expense for firebrick. It would require a much smaller sum of money to quarry this rock and place it at the various furnaces ; and the results obtained, I am sure, would prove its superiority over the majority of firebrick brought into this region. Soapstone, as well as kaolin, is found throughout the metamorphic regions of Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina. Below-will be found seven analyses that I have made of this mineral, taken from various points in the four States above mentioned. I have also subjected these same specimens to severe fire-tests, and the results were very satisfactory. The tests were conducted in the following manner: Small portions of the compact variety were carefully weighed and placed in a Fletcher's new crucible furnace for gas, and subjected for half an hour to a heat that will in 12 minutes fuse iron. The only effect upon these specimens was a slight change in color .to a darker shade, a small loss in weight, due evidently to the evaporation of water, and, in one or two specimens, a slight degree of fusion on the sharp edges. The first specimen subjected to investigation was taken from a large outcropping in Tallapoosa County, Alabama. Specific gravity, 2.88 ; hardness, 1.9; color, blue gray. Composition Water, - 2.68 Silica, - 65.46 Iron oxide, - 2.10 Alumina, - 15.02 Magnesia, - 15.35 100.61

Jan 1, 1882

IF you wish to make the acid that is vulgarly called common aqua fortis,* for parting gold from silver, you must first provide as many cucurbits and alembics, receivers, and materials as you wish, and then make a furnace that is long and conveniently wide for holding three or four pairs of cucurbits or as many as you wish. If you have to make this by art in order to work a large quantity, you could make several small furnaces for it seems that not more than three or four pairs are suitable for one. Prepare the places where the cucurbits are to stand with bottoms or covers made of potter's clay or tiles that are half round like the bottoms of the cucurbits and have a little rim around the top so that they can be built in. Proceed to build these in in pairs, one by the other with convenient spaces between, placing an iron support across to make this place stronger and more secure. In every corner and also in the middle a hole must be made as a vent for the smoke, as is done in all furnaces. You will see the form of this somewhat roughly drawn here. [Figure 25] Near this prepare a number of cucurbits which are made of glass, as clear and uniform as possible and very well formed. There must be no bubbles or other indentations in these, for they would be dangerous and uncertain for your work. Lute these with lutum sapientiae up to within three dita or less from where the neck narrows. This lute must be spread out well all over to the thickness of two threads or a little more. Then cover and make them strong with this well-made plaster, and finally dry it, taking care that there are no clefts or cracks such as clays are often prone to make even though they be well prepared. For greater security choose among these [64v] a clay that is lean and then mix it with at least a fourth part or more of wool-clloth clippings and about an eighth part of wash

Jan 1, 1942

By R. E. Lamborn

A summary of oil and gas development in Ohio for 1935 must necessarily be brief. As attention of the state government to the oil and gas industry has never included the collection and compilation of statistics on production, either by producing sands, by counties, by fields, or for the state as a whole, such information as requested in Table 1 of this symposium is impossible to secure for this state. In the absence of production data chief attention must be directed to drilling activity for the year. Information such as can be compiled from various sources, including weekly drilling reports to operating companies and trade journals, is given in the following paragraphs with the realization that the data may not be complete in all its details. Drilling Activity by Fields Drilling activity during 1935 was similar to the preceding year in , that the major operating companies were generally content to drill lease-requirement and offset wells and in that comparatively little effort was made to discover new pools. A compilation of completions recorded in weekly reports to drilling companies and in trade journals show 1022 tests completed for the year in 53 counties of the state. Of this total number, 653 wells were commercial producers and 369 were classed as dry holes. Production was secured in 40 counties from formations ranging in depth to 5700 ft. and ranging in age from Middle Ordovician to upper Pennsyl-vanian. From the standpoint of new production for the year, the most important sands are the Clinton of Silurian age, the Berea of Mississippian age and the Shallow sands of Mississippian above the Berea and of Pennsylvanian age. Trenton Sand Field Production in the field of Trenton sand, which originally included parts of 15 counties in northwestern Ohio, is now on the decline. Seventy-three completions were reported in this field during 1935, of which 33.8 per cent were dry holes. Activity centered in Allen County with 12 completions, two of which were dry holes; in Hardin County with 11 producers; and in Wyandot County with 12 producers and 2 dry holes.

Jan 1, 1936

By Wm. Hamilton Merritt

IN this paper, which I have the honor to submit to the Institute, it is my intention to treat especially of that part of the North Staffordshire field which converges to a long tongue in the neighborhood of Congleton, and which includes the villages of New Chapel, Ford Green, Norton, Biddulph, Bradley Green, Gillow Heath, and the immediate vicinity. My object is not so much to give a minute description of the geology or systems of mining and smelting, as by a general review, some idea of the extraordinary facilities for the production of excellent iron, which have enabled this district to maintain its position more successfully than any of its rivals against the late depression in trade. The North Staffordshire coal field has the Cheshire and Lancashire fields some thirty-five miles to the north, those of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire forty miles to the east, those of South Staffordshire and Shropshire, about thirty miles to the south, and the Denbighshire and Flintshire fields some forty miles to the west. It is highly probable that the coal continues under the new red sandstone to the Western and Southern fields as the dips on both sides, and absence of large faults, make it impossible to come to any other conclusion. In a section of this coal field, from Chatterly to Whitfield, thirty-two workable seams of coal are shown, of an aggregate thickness of 130 feet, varying from 2 feet 6 inches to 7 feet, and thirteen seams of ironstone, 24 feet, averaging from 2 to 4 feet. All of these seams have been minutely described in a paper by Mr. Charles J. Homer, read in 1875 before the British Iron and Steel Institute. In the northern part, to which I especially wish to direct your attention, the beds lie in a V-shaped basin, the underlying millstone grit and Yoredale rocks rising and forming escarpments on either side of the valley containing the coal. Throughout this district, at the outcrop of the coal, there are indications of old workings. A shaft 4 to 5 feet in diameter reaches the coal at about 14 yards from the surface, and from it the coal has

Jan 1, 1880