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By Theodore Marvin

NOW that real progress is being made in building airplanes that can stand up under adverse conditions in isolated parts of the world, utilization of aviation by mining and petroleum companies is proceeding rapidly. This isolation, offering such handicaps to ordinary methods of transportation, also was the thorn in the flesh of aviation until the recent advances in plane and englue design. The accompanying illustration shows one of the six new planes just delivered to the U. S. Government for map making. The planes will be used in Department of Commerce, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Navy Hydrographic, and Insular work. There is a trap door in the bottom of the hull for a Fairchild camera which takes five pictures-vertical, N60°, E60°, S60°, and W60°-at regular intervals. It is manufactured by the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp., Farmingdale, N. Y.

Jan 1, 1935

Jan 1, 1967

By H. E. Montgomery

Engineering trends for some years have been toward higher temperatures, both in process work and in steam generation. Progress in design has been dependent upon the development and evaluation of suitable alloys. Elementary knowledge of the limitations of copper-base alloys indicate their unsuitability for the higher ranges of operating temperatures; say, for steam to 950°F. Emphasis upon the more severe conditions perhaps is a reason why more complete evaluations have not been made for copper-base alloys over their range of suitability. However, the few studies made show clearly the need for more accurate evaluations. Some copper-base alloys long looked upon favorably because of superior room-temperature properties are not as desirable as some others perhaps not so "strong" and "hard," as measured by usual acceptance tests. Load-carrying capacity and structural stability arc two important factors. Structural stability as influenced by temperature, by presence of corrosive media, or by the effects of stress itself, frequently is a limiting factor. An early reference to creep properties of the cast copper-base alloys is that of Brown1 (Admiralty gun metal, Cu 87.5, Sn 10.1, Zn 2.3 and Pb 0.08). His tests were similar to present-day stress-rupture tests without measurement of creep elongrttion. Loading was in steps with usually 24 hr. between steps, and continued until failure. He advocated a "useful strength value" of 61/2 tons (I4,560 Ib.) per sq. in. at 572°F. (300°C.). A specimen broken in 1/2 hr. at 572°F. had a strength of 21 tons (26,880 Ib.) per sq. in. The strength values as determined by 1/2-hr. tests and those by the longer stress-rupturc start to differentiate at 392°F. (200°C). This is the temperature at which time at load began to play an important part. Bolton, Price and Hebemann2 give creep curves on 88-10-2 (A.S.T.M. B-60, CU 88, Sn 10, Zn 2) and steam or valve bronze (A.S.T.M. B-6I, Cu 87.50, Sn 6.00, Zn 3.75, Pb 1.70) at 500°F. Direct comparison of the two alloys under 7500 lb. per sq. in. stress showed the steam bronze (A.S.T.M. B-61) superior in creep strength to the 88-10-2 (A.S.T.M. B-60). The steam bronze shows no creep after 700 hr. (1540-hr. test). The 88-10-2 shows a rate of about 7.0 per cent in 100,000 hr. over the last 700 hr. of the test. Creep curves on the steam bronze are also given at the same temperature (500°F.) with loads of 6500 lb. per sq. in. and 8000 lb. per sq. in. These indicate "creep strengths" (creep rate within I per cent in 100,000 hr.) in excess of 8000 lb. per sq, in. for this alloy. It was found that higher percentages of tin are detrimental to creep resistance. This is caused by the presence of or formation during test of considerable alpha-delta eutectoid in the higher tin alloys. Bolton also states that the high

Jan 1, 1945

By AIME AIME

HENRY YONGE WALKER is one of Canada's numerous gifts to the American mining and metallurgical industry, having been born it1 New Brunswick 59 years ago. At eighteen he came to the United States and has since been continuously identified with what are known as the Guggenheim interests. His first position was in the capacity of clerk at the Philadelphia Smelting & Refining Co. plant of M. Guggenheim Sons at Pueblo, Colo. In 1905 he was transferred to the plant of the American Smelting & Refining Co. at Everett, Wash., as assistant manager, two years later going to the Tacoma plant in the same capacity though with added

Jan 1, 1938

By J. C. Reed

CINNABAR was discovered in southwestern Arkansas on Little Missouri River in sec. 1, T.7S., R.26W., in April, 1930, and near Antoine Creek in sec. 28, T.6S., R.23W., some 15 miles farther east in May of the same year. It was not, however, until June, 1931, that cinnabar was identified as such in a specimen from the original discovery area sent to W. M. Weigel1 by Walter F. Hintze of Murfreesboro. Almost simultaneously2, in July, 1931, Moritz Norden of Hot Springs identified specimens from the Antoine Creek area as cinnabar. Immediate interest in the district followed the identification of cinnabar and by January, 1932, the district was known to extend as a mineralized belt about one mile wide trending east-northeast from sec. 13, T.7S., R.27W., in Howard County-across central Pike County and into Clark County to sec. 19, T.6S., R.23W., thence extending southeast into sections 33 and 34 of the same township. Since then, cinnabar has been found in sec. 6, T.7S., R.22W., thus giving a total east-west length to the district of approximately 30 miles. Interest focused mainly on the two discovery areas, with the result that mining development has progressed most rapidly in those localities. In the Antoine Creek area the Arkansas Quicksilver Co. has done con-siderable exploration work and has retorted the high-grade ore so .obtained. In the Little Missouri area the Southwestern Quicksilver Co. has had a 12-ton rotary furnace in more or less continuous operation since April, 1932, and has been the largest producer in the district.

Jan 1, 1935

IN speaking, on the subject, "Engineer-Citizens," at the Lehigh Valley Mineral Industries Conference dinner, on April 26, at Easton, Pa., George Otis Smith, Director of the United States Geological Survey and President of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, said in part: "It would be carrying coke to Connellsville to bring to the Lehigh Valley the idea that mineral resources are the foundation of national prosperity. Unfortu-nately, however, this obvious, fact is not everywhere recognized. Too many of our economists, journalists, statesmen and other dopesters of present business con-ditions stress the human factor so strongly that they overlook the material with which men work out their destiny. To them the financial psychology of Wall Street and the political logic of Capitol Hill and the business commonplaces of Main Street all loom far larger than the geology of the Lehigh Valley or the engineering triumphs of Bethlehem, or, the creative thinking at Lehigh and Lafayette. "The present situation in the industrial and .business world is a complex of interacting causes and reacting effects not easily itemized and entered on our trial balance sheet. But, chief among the liabilities of today is the excess of production capacity in most branches of industry. The farmer has no. monopoly in his desire for relief. Whether your professional connections are with steel or cement, coal or oil, copper, or zinc, you; know too well that for, the moment America is over-engined, and you keenly realize the ever-present hazard of industry speeding up regardless of the curves or grades just around the corner.

Jan 5, 1928

THE LIFE and works of Alexander Agassiz, first president of the Calumet & Hecla Mining Co., were recalled to memory when a monument bearing his statue was unveiled in Agassiz Park, at Calumet, Mich., on Sept. 26, The statue is the work of Paul W. Bartlett, of New York, and was erected by George R. Agassiz, eldest son of Alexander Agassiz. We are indebted to Rodolphe L. Agassiz, now president of the Calumet & Hecla Consolidated, for the accompanying photograph of the statue. The principal address at the unveiling ceremony was delivered by Allen F. Rees, of Houghton, who said, in part: To the world at large Alexander Agassiz was preeminently the man of science. With all his devotion to the industrial life of this district, he found the time to devote to the con-tinuation of his work of scientific research which had been the life work of his fa-ther, Louis Agassiz. Not only did he acquire eminence for his scientific at-tainments and learn-ing, but he was recognized and hon-ored throughout the civilized world for his achievements and accomplishments in the realm of original research. His work in the fields of nat-ural science, in oceanography, in marine zoology, and in other similar lines of research, has added much to our knowledge of the world's mysteries. His life was one of accomplishment also in the industrial world. The union in one life of acknowledged achievement as a scientist and the accomplishment of great results in the prac-tical industrial world is a rare thing, and its possibility has never been exemplified in greater measure than in his life and its results.

Jan 11, 1923

By R. J. Mechin

TOP-SLICING was introduced in the Pachuca district in 1917 by T. C. Baker, at that time mine superintendent, of the Santa Gertrudis mine. There then existed 1200 ft. (365.7 m.) below the surface, lying between the fourteenth and eighteenth levels (a vertical distance of 108 meters) a block of ore having a length of 295 ft. (90 m.), and an average width of 82 ft. (25 m.) and dipping at an angle of 65°. This block lay in the hanging wall of the vein and consisted of highly altered and fractured andesite, cut through with mineralized quartz stringers. On the foot-wall side, 26 ft. (8 m.) of old filling, left by former operators, was of payable grade. Stoping therein was first undertaken by the square-set filling system, but because of the extremely heavy hanging wall and loose dry filling in the foot wall, all square setting had to be accompanied by spiling, which made the operation exceedingly slow and costly. A system of mining was sought that would eliminate the difficulties inherent to the square-set system in heavy ground and that at the same time would effect the desired economies in mining. After several years, top-slicing has met all the conditions most satisfactorily, so that when similar conditions presented themselves in El Bordo mine, this method was adopted with necessary modifications. El Bordo mine is operated by the Santa Gertrudis company, and is situated about two miles north of Pachuca. Because of the diversity of the orebodies, a number of different mining methods are in use, among them top-slicing.

Jan 10, 1925

By H. F. Seifert

THE classification and preparation of non-ferrous scrap metals is a subject of interest to every individual and corporation that employs in its processes of manufacture non-ferrous metals and alloys and accumulates in such manufacture scrap from these materials for disposition in the form of turnings, borings, short ends, punchings, clippings, grindings, washings, etc. All too frequently the disposition of such scrap is left to individuals who have no knowledge of the subject either from a metallurgical or a commercial standpoint, or both. Much money is thus lost which with a little more intelligent effort might be saved, and in this day of fierce competition and small profits such an opportunity cannot be ignored. The Mineral Resources of the United States for the year 1925, the latest issue available (Part 1, page 221), gives the secondary non-ferrous TABLE 1.-Some Secondary Non-ferrous Metals Recovered in the United States for the Year 1924-25 Material Short Tons Value Copper, including that in alloys other than brass.... 250,600 $ 71,170,400 Brass, scrap remelted 242,300 56,270,800 Lead as metal 112,4201 39,477,100 Lead as alloys 112,460 Zinc as metal 61,430 11,359,000 Zinc -in alloys other than brass 13,300 Tin as metal 1 7,950 35,165,400 Tin in alloys 23,000 Antimony as metal 1 } 3;794,000 Antimony in alloys 10,839 Aluminum as metal 17,700 24 Aluminum in alloys 26,300 ,816,000 Nickel as metal 19 1 1,518,000 Nickel in non-ferrous alloys 2,109 Total 882,600 $243,570,700

Jan 1, 1928

By J. E. Brantly

In October 1939, a drilling program was commenced on the Atlantic seaboard of Brazil, with three steam rotary rigs of medium capacity. One of these was assigned to the State of Alagbas and the other two to the State of Bahia. During the remaining few months of 1939 and during the year 1940, some eight wells were drilled, two in Alagbas and six in Bahia. Two small producers were found in the latter state. In early 1941 three medium-weight Diesel rigs were added to the equipment, thus permitting the drilling of some 15 wells during the year 1941. The two small producers found in 1940 in the State of Rahia were near the city of Silo Salvador. In 1941 three additional small wells were brought in, in the same area, and a further producer on an isolated structure some 75 km. to the northwest of this production. No commercial production has been found in the State of Alagbas. Approximately 26 wells have been drilled or are drilling, six of which are producers— five in one area and one in another. The program for 1942 calls for the development of the two areas in which wells have been found and also the drilling of several wildcat structures located either by geophysics or surface geology. All production in the area of the several producing wells is somewhat less than 2000 ft. and in the other area about 3800 ft. The area of the several wells is known as the Lobato field, and is practically within the city limits of Sao Salvador. The area 75 km. northwest of the city will be known as the Candeias field.

Jan 1, 1942

By J. E. Brantly

In October 1939, a drilling program was commenced on the Atlantic seaboard of Brazil, with three steam rotary rigs of medium capacity. One of these was assigned to the State of Alagbas and the other two to the State of Bahia. During the remaining few months of 1939 and during the year 1940, some eight wells were drilled, two in Alagbas and six in Bahia. Two small producers were found in the latter state. In early 1941 three medium-weight Diesel rigs were added to the equipment, thus permitting the drilling of some 15 wells during the year 1941. The two small producers found in 1940 in the State of Rahia were near the city of Silo Salvador. In 1941 three additional small wells were brought in, in the same area, and a further producer on an isolated structure some 75 km. to the northwest of this production. No commercial production has been found in the State of Alagbas. Approximately 26 wells have been drilled or are drilling, six of which are producers— five in one area and one in another. The program for 1942 calls for the development of the two areas in which wells have been found and also the drilling of several wildcat structures located either by geophysics or surface geology. All production in the area of the several producing wells is somewhat less than 2000 ft. and in the other area about 3800 ft. The area of the several wells is known as the Lobato field, and is practically within the city limits of Sao Salvador. The area 75 km. northwest of the city will be known as the Candeias field.

Jan 1, 1942

Jan 1, 1970

J. T. LITTLETON, JR., ? Corning, N. Y. (written discussion?).-This. discussion will add little that has not been brought out but will show how the problems encountered in the Corning Glass Works were overcome. The chief points of consideration in any equipment are, first, the work the equipment is called upon to do; second, the installation; and, third, the man who will use it. These three points should determine the type of apparatus adopted. If only rough measurements, merely a little better than the eye, are desired, the cost of the instruments should be considered; but if accurate temperature control is necessary, the cost of the equipment deserves only small consideration. There is no question that the real problem for any factory is the installation, making sure that the elements really give the temperatures desired; also, the instruments must be so designed that any man can use them.

Jan 12, 1919

By Elmer W. Pehrson

NINETEEN FORTY-SIX was an eventful year for the mineral industries. Perhaps the most significant development was the socialization of industry in Great Britain, initiated in 1945 but carried to fruition in the coal industry in 1946. On Jan. 1, 1947, management of the coal industry will be vested in a National Coal Board, responsible to the Ministry of Fuel and Power. A sum of £164,660,000 has been provided to compensate private owners for assets transferred to the Board. The British coal industry has been a problem for many years. Production has declined to a point where serious shortages of fuel for domestic needs have developed. Exports have dwindled to a small fraction of the previous trade. Costs have increased greatly, and quality has deteriorated. The industry's physical plant has not kept pace with the rapidly mounting wage scales in recent years. Some claim that the best and most accessible coal reserves of Britain are heavily depleted. The industry has been harassed by difficult labor problems, including bad morale among the workers and a shrinking labor force.

Jan 1, 1947

By George C. Gibbons

ALMOST everyone in any of the five counties embracing the great East Texas field depends heavily upon oil for his living whether or not he actually owns a well or piece of royalty himself. Oil is a natural resource that, when utilized, spreads its benefits over a vast area and into many channels. Depending then almost entirely upon agriculture: what is now known as the East Texas oil field a decade ago had a scattered farming population. For many of its people, tomatoes and other vegetable crops coupled with the old southern stand-by of cotton, furnished an adequate living and a small cash surplus. Some farm families on the red hills, however, were not far re- moved from the sowbelly and black- eyed peas, or cornpone and potlikker, standard of living. Kilgore of that day, was a village of less than 850 per- sons. Longview, with just over 5000, apparently had reached the limit of its growth. Tyler was an overgrown farming town of around 17,000 persons, de- pending largely upon the agricultural income of Smith County and surrounding territory for which it was a trading center.

Jan 1, 1941

By Eugene McAuliffe

THE last obtainable figures of the value of the coal mining investment are those contained in the U. S. Census Reports, from data gathered in 1919. The values shown therein and set forth below cover lands and equipment and do not include distribution and marketing facilities. The working capital necessary to meet pay rolls to purchase material and supplies and workmen's compensation insurance are likewise excluded.

Jan 1, 1926

By JAMES QATLEY

THE atmosphere, which plays such an important part in the manufacture of iron and steel, is the most variable element involved in its several processes; and particularly is this true of the blast-furnace process, which consumes air in large quantities. At no time since the blast-furnace became an important and widely used apparatus-even when it was operated in the most crude manner-have the variations in composition of the raw materials used been as frequent and as great as the variations in humility of the atmosphere. Important, improvements have been made in the blast furnace and its accessories, such as the hot-blast stoves, the increase in size and change in the shape of the furnace, more efficient blowing engines, the increased protection given to the bosh walls, and the careful preparation of' the raw material, all of which have exerted a pronounced influence on the furnace-operations from a metallurgical standpoint. But during the past eight years little advance has been made in this direction; the fuel-consumption has not diminished, nor has there been any material increase in production. Within that period, however, there has been witnessed the greatest development in appliances for the economical handling of material. So complete has been the work in this direction, that, except in isolated cases, in this country at least., a further extension does not hold out much promise of a satisfactory return on the investment required. It seemed that, with the exception of the gas-engine, we had about reached the limit, for like a strong wall, the atmosphere, with its humility as variable to-clay as when first blown into a primitive blast-furnace, appeared to stand as a Barrier to

Jan 1, 1905

By C. C. Herrick

The vapor pressure of indium has been measured by the torque-effusion technique, as a function of temperature between 1102o and 1422oK. For liquid indium, the vapor pressure (in atmospheres) can be represented by the equation -R In P = 5.782 x104/T - 25.29from 1000o to 1422oK. Extrapolation yields a calculated normal boiling point of 2329°K and a heat of vaporization at 298 oK of 58.09 kcal per mole by the third-law method and of 58.39 kcal per mole by the second-law method. Calculations indicate that the free-energy functions of Hultgren are to be preferred to those of Guruich. BECAUSE of the potential uses of liquid metals, it is important that convenient experimental methods be developed which will lead to a sufficient body of thermodynamic data so that reasonable estimates of properties of liquid metals can be made. Indium is particularly well-suited to investigation, since it remains liquid over a long temperature interval, it alloys readily, suitable containers for it are easily procured, and relatively few investigations of its thermodynamic properties in the region above 1000°K have been made. PREVIOUS RESEARCH The first determination of the vapor pressure of indium was made by Anderson,' using the Knudsen method and silica-lines stainless-steel cells. Kohlmeyer and spandau2 determined the normal boiling point, and a mass-spectroscopic investigation has been made by Lyubimov and Lyubitov.3 (Unfortunately, only an equation representing the data of the latter investigators has been available to us.) Hultgren et al.4 and Gurvich5 have published discordant tables of the free-energy functions for indium. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD The torsion-effusion principle has been described amply in the literature.8,7 With this method, one observes the angular deflection induced by effusion of vapor from a multihole effusion cell which is suspended from a filament producing a small rotational restoring force. The pressure within the effusion cell can be computed from the relation ziaifiai where k is the torsion constant of the filament, 6 is the observed angular deflection, and ai, fi, and qi are the area, force factor, and moment arm of the ith effusion orifice. The force factor f is analogous to the Clausing factor,' and corrects for the reduction in effusive force attributable to the finite geometry of the effusion orifice. Schultz and Searcy' have tabulated the force factors for various tube geometries. EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS The physical arrangement employed in this study is shown in Fig. 1. The furnace elements are six Globar heat rods with 15-in. hot zones. Temperature is maintained to * 1°K by a Beck mechanism driving two 26-amp Powerstats in parallel. A Pt (Pt, Rh 10 pct) thermocouple serves as the sensing element. Four inner tubes act as vibration isolators; the air pressure required for maximum isolation was determined empirically, and is maintained by a solenoid valve. The tungsten fiber, 9 by 0.002 in., is joined to an 0.008-in. tungsten wire or graphite rod via a machined lightweight chuck.

Jan 1, 1964

By A. Hultgren, G. Phragmén

Page Outline of Progress of Knowledge and Theories about Gas Evolution in Steel Ingots. and Its Influence on Crystallization and Segregation................ 134 Object of Present Investigation........................................... 148 Theoretical Discussion of Process of Solidification........................... 149 Gas Given Off from Rimming Steel during Solidification................... 149 Equilibrium Diagram of the Iron-carbon-oxygen Alloys................... 151 Solidification of Pure Iron-carbon-oxygen Alloys.......................... 157 Solidification when Carbon Monoxide Is Given Off at Constant Pressure... 157 Solidification when Gas Evolution Is Suppressed....................... 158 Schematic Application on Solidification of Rimming-steel Ingots.......... 159 Influence of Manganese, Sulphur and Phosphorus......................... 160 Experimental work..................................................... 162 Liquid Steel and the Mold Gas......................................... 162 Ingots Investigated and Methods Used.................................. 165 Ingot structure....................................................... 174 Structure of Rim Zone.............................................. 174 Structure of Core................................................... 181 Structures Obtained under Special Conditions of Freezing................ 182 Distribution of Metalloids............................................. 187 Other Observations Made............................................. 192 General Discussion of Solidification Process................................. 195 Condition of Liquid Steel before Casting................................. 195 Rimming Period...................................................... 202 Composition of Rim Zone............................................. 225 Freezing after Top Is Closed........................................... 228 Slag Inclusions and Ingot Scum........................................ 234 Reaction between Gas in Blowholes and Surrounding Solid Steel during Cooling 235 Summary.............................................................. 237 Appendix—Preparation and Etching of Ingot Sections....................... 238 References............................................................. 239 In 1934, Jernkontoret (The Swedish Ironmasters' Association) appointed a committee for the study of the structure of rimming-steel ingots and the various phenomena associated with their solidification. The members of the committee, including those who have joined it later, have been: I. Bohm, B. D. Enlund, B. Kalling, M. Tigerschiöld, S. Wohlfahrt and the authors. The present paper‡ is a somewhat

Jan 1, 1939

By G. Phragmén, A. Hultgren

Page Outline of Progress of Knowledge and Theories about Gas Evolution in Steel Ingots. and Its Influence on Crystallization and Segregation................ 134 Object of Present Investigation........................................... 148 Theoretical Discussion of Process of Solidification........................... 149 Gas Given Off from Rimming Steel during Solidification................... 149 Equilibrium Diagram of the Iron-carbon-oxygen Alloys................... 151 Solidification of Pure Iron-carbon-oxygen Alloys.......................... 157 Solidification when Carbon Monoxide Is Given Off at Constant Pressure... 157 Solidification when Gas Evolution Is Suppressed....................... 158 Schematic Application on Solidification of Rimming-steel Ingots.......... 159 Influence of Manganese, Sulphur and Phosphorus......................... 160 Experimental work..................................................... 162 Liquid Steel and the Mold Gas......................................... 162 Ingots Investigated and Methods Used.................................. 165 Ingot structure....................................................... 174 Structure of Rim Zone.............................................. 174 Structure of Core................................................... 181 Structures Obtained under Special Conditions of Freezing................ 182 Distribution of Metalloids............................................. 187 Other Observations Made............................................. 192 General Discussion of Solidification Process................................. 195 Condition of Liquid Steel before Casting................................. 195 Rimming Period...................................................... 202 Composition of Rim Zone............................................. 225 Freezing after Top Is Closed........................................... 228 Slag Inclusions and Ingot Scum........................................ 234 Reaction between Gas in Blowholes and Surrounding Solid Steel during Cooling 235 Summary.............................................................. 237 Appendix—Preparation and Etching of Ingot Sections....................... 238 References............................................................. 239 In 1934, Jernkontoret (The Swedish Ironmasters' Association) appointed a committee for the study of the structure of rimming-steel ingots and the various phenomena associated with their solidification. The members of the committee, including those who have joined it later, have been: I. Bohm, B. D. Enlund, B. Kalling, M. Tigerschiöld, S. Wohlfahrt and the authors. The present paper‡ is a somewhat

Jan 1, 1939