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NEW YORK SECTION ALLEN H. ROGERS, Chairman, H. C. PARMELEE, vice-chairman, FOREST RUTHERFORD, Vice-chairman, W. S. DICKSON, Secretary, 71 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N. Y. J. E. JOHNSON, JR. F. T. RUBIDGE, Treasurer, P. G. SPILSBURY A meeting of the New York Section was held at The Machinery Club on Friday evening, Oct. 4, 1918, The Chairman, Allen H. Rogers, presiding. The CHAIRMAN.-MOST of us, I suppose, have been affected more or less by The request of The Fuel Administration that we leave our automobiles standing in The garages on Sundays. We shall all be interested in hearing about The situation that has called forth This, request, and The Oil Administrator, Mr. Requa, has kindly come from Washington to Tell us about it. MARK L. REQUA.-I am very glad To Tell you about the oil problem during This war period. The United States is supplying by far The greater part of all The petroleum products consumed in Great Britain, France and Italy. In addition To This, we have had To supply a marked increase in our domestic consumption, not only of The refined products, but of fuel oil as well. The combination has put a strain on The oil industry, which it is very difficult To meet. The oil companies, being under contract, had no option as To who should get Their oil first, and They were delivering pro rata To everybody; manufacturers of furniture were getting oil with The same regularity as Those who were making aeroplanes or munitions, and The oil companies felt that something should be done. The first order with which I had. anything To do was The priority list for The delivery of fuel oil. That list contained 12 classifications, beginning with bunker fuel and railroads, and you will realize The complexity of The situation when you hear that munitions plants are in class 11. The priority list held during The winter, but transportation became so bad, because of The number of ships that were Taken for trans-Atlantic use, that some of The oil companies were not able To deliver more Than about 60 per cent. into class 5, and nothing beyond that point. To add To the Troubles, the Tank-car mileage fell off. The average for 1917 was about 36 miles per car per day. in January, 1918, it dropped To about 8 miles, and it must have been nearly zero in The early part. of February. Because of The extremely severe winter, furthermore, pipe lines were not delivering anywhere near Their normal capacity. A new priority list has recently been promulgated, introducing a few slight changes. Natural gas has been brought under its provisions, and it has been extended To include The Pacific Coast, which was not considered necessary last winter. The situation in The gas industry is not satisfactory; it is estimated that There will be a decrease of 10 To 20 per cent. in The quantity of natural gas available This winter, as compared with last winter.

Jan 11, 1918

OIL FLOTATION DISCUSSED BY SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SECTION . A meeting of the Section was held in the home of R. H. Norton, 335 W. 27th Street, on Mar. 10, thirty-two members and five guests being present. Vice-chairman Staunton opened the meeting with a description of an experiment he made with oil flotation, and then introduced the guest and speaker of the evening, L. C. Penhoel, of the South-western Engineering Co., who gave a very interesting and informal talk on the subject of Flotation. During the talk, as points were raised, there was a general discussion, in which valuable information was brought out. A number of examples of successful competitive, results by cyanidation and flotation in large milling plants in this country and Mexico were cited and discussed. The latter part of the meeting was devoted to a discussion of the bill introduced in the California State Senate, to license and register engineers. Mr. Ernest Strout gave a most favorable opinion of the principal of licensing mining engineers from his extensive experience in the working out of such a law on the Rand. All members who spoke were opposed to this bill as drafted but felt that the subject was of too great importance to the profession to attempt to amend the present bill in the week or two that remains, and that the passage of a bill that was so crude and inefficient for the achievement of the results desired, would harm the engineering profession. After the meeting adjourned a short time was spent in social intercourse, during which light refreshments were served. The appreciation and thanks of the Section is extended to Mr. and Mrs. R. H. Norton for their hospitality. ALVIN B. CARPENTER, Secretary-Treasurer.

Jan 5, 1919

NEW YORK LOCAL SECTION Executive Committee LEWIS W. FRANCIS, Chairman WILLARD S. MORSE, Vice-Chairman. THOMAS T. READ, Secretary, Woolworth Bldg., New York, N. Y. PHILIP A. MOSMAN, Treasurer Louis D. HUNTOON WILLIAM A. POMEROY The October meeting of the New York Local Section was held on Oct. 2 at 1424 Broadway, following a beefsteak supper, at which 71 members were present. B. B. Thayer spoke briefly on present labor conditions at Butte, A. A. Blow discussed labor conditions in New Zealand, and Hennen Jennings discussed the fundamental problems of industrial unrest. Several other members joined in the informal discussion which followed. The next meeting will be held on Nov. 7. THOMAS T. READ, Secretary.

Jan 11, 1914

BOSTON LOCAL SECTION Executive Committee HENRY L. SMYTH, Chairman ALFRED C. LANE, Vice-Chairman AUGUSTUS H. EUSTIS, Secretary-Treasurer, 131 State St., Boston, Mass. ROBERT H. RICHARDS ALBERT SAUVEUR Meets on the first Monday evening of each winter month, Twenty-third Meeting The Twenty-third Meeting of the Boston Local Section was held at the Engineers' Club, 2 Commonwealth Ave., on Monday evening, Nov. 30,- 1914. Prof. R. A. Daly addressed the meeting on The Iron Ores of Küruna; Sweden. AUGUSTUS H. EUSTIS Secretary.

Jan 1, 1915

By Daniel R. Hull

In 1926 Gendersl reviewed the existing theories of this subject and stated his views in support of the gas-pressure theory. Again, in 1937, the subject was thoroughly reviewed by N. B. Vaughan3 and by Phillips and Brick,2 so that no résumé is called for here. The purpose of this paper is to describe certain observations made in the course of mill work, and to point out that they mostly tend to confirm the gas theory of Genders. Vapor Segregation There is, however, one type of inverse segregation that can be accounted for by considering the volatility of one of the constituents of an alloy. The most familiar case is ordinary brass, which is subject to a zinc enrichment of a few tenths of a per cent at the surface of a chill casting. This has been noted in 70-30 brass by Genders, and a typical example of it is given in Table 1, which represents a cylindrical billet 7 in. in diameter by 55 in. long. After lathe-turning 1/32 in. from the surface, the remaining distance to the center was sampled at six equally spaced intervals. the lead, which is essentially the same throughout, will be mentioned later. Consider a brass-mill mold, either round or rectangular in cross section, standing several feet high. It may require a minute or two for pouring. Before it is full, the metal in the lower end has partly solidified and contracted somewhat away from the mold. The initial shell of solidification follows not far behind the top of the column, even if the central portion is liquid for a long way down. There is, then, a space between metal and mold that is filled with zinc vapor. The vapor has no exit, because the liquid at the top of the rising column is not only in contact with the mold but keeps UP a fresh supply of zinc vapor, which has, perhaps, already begun to condense in the lower portion. The cycle is short. Within a minute or two after the mold is full the bar has cooled enough to condense all the zinc. Some of it may condense on the mold; it might be expected that most of it would condense there, but the mold at that time is well coated with a velvety carbon residue from the oil dressing, overlain by fluffy zinc oxide that commenced covering the inside of the mold as soon as pouring began. The clean skin of the freshly cast brass offers a preferred surface for condensation. Reabsorption is quick and inevitable. A simple experiment indicates that a surprisingly large quantity of zinc vapor is trapped in the space between mold and

Jan 1, 1941

By Daniel R. Hull

In 1926 Gendersl reviewed the existing theories of this subject and stated his views in support of the gas-pressure theory. Again, in 1937, the subject was thoroughly reviewed by N. B. Vaughan3 and by Phillips and Brick,2 so that no résumé is called for here. The purpose of this paper is to describe certain observations made in the course of mill work, and to point out that they mostly tend to confirm the gas theory of Genders. Vapor Segregation There is, however, one type of inverse segregation that can be accounted for by considering the volatility of one of the constituents of an alloy. The most familiar case is ordinary brass, which is subject to a zinc enrichment of a few tenths of a per cent at the surface of a chill casting. This has been noted in 70-30 brass by Genders, and a typical example of it is given in Table 1, which represents a cylindrical billet 7 in. in diameter by 55 in. long. After lathe-turning 1/32 in. from the surface, the remaining distance to the center was sampled at six equally spaced intervals. the lead, which is essentially the same throughout, will be mentioned later. Consider a brass-mill mold, either round or rectangular in cross section, standing several feet high. It may require a minute or two for pouring. Before it is full, the metal in the lower end has partly solidified and contracted somewhat away from the mold. The initial shell of solidification follows not far behind the top of the column, even if the central portion is liquid for a long way down. There is, then, a space between metal and mold that is filled with zinc vapor. The vapor has no exit, because the liquid at the top of the rising column is not only in contact with the mold but keeps UP a fresh supply of zinc vapor, which has, perhaps, already begun to condense in the lower portion. The cycle is short. Within a minute or two after the mold is full the bar has cooled enough to condense all the zinc. Some of it may condense on the mold; it might be expected that most of it would condense there, but the mold at that time is well coated with a velvety carbon residue from the oil dressing, overlain by fluffy zinc oxide that commenced covering the inside of the mold as soon as pouring began. The clean skin of the freshly cast brass offers a preferred surface for condensation. Reabsorption is quick and inevitable. A simple experiment indicates that a surprisingly large quantity of zinc vapor is trapped in the space between mold and

Jan 1, 1941

By R. Ingerson

Bore surfaces of used guns commonly show a pattern of cracks in various degrees of development. It has been suggested that these cracks may aid erosion by providing channelways for the gases, eventually leading to the tearing out of blocks of metal. Under the general studies of gun erosion conducted at the Geophysical Laboratory it appeared desirable to consider this factor, and to determine the resistance to surface cracking offered by gun steel and by various other materials that might be used in the bores of guns. Method and Apparatus In order to make such a determination it is necessary to have (I) an arrangement in which the surface to be studied can be subjected to conditions similar to those in a gun with respect to temperature, pressure (developed by explosion gases), composition of the gases and length of time the surface is exposed to the gases; and (2) a specimen that can be examined readily after any number of shots, and then fired again, if necessary. The first of these conditions can be met by using an explosion vessel designed by H. S. Roberts of the Geophysical Laboratory. Fig I shows a cross-section of the apparatus. The "gun" G from which the charge is fired is made from the receiver of a caliber 0.30 army rifle, M1903, and the charges are prepared in caliber 0.30 cartridge cases. The test specimen S is held in place by a cone-shaped plug P and by a steel bridge B which is bolted to the outside of the explosion vessel on either side of the section shown. The plug, in turn, is held in place by a screw collar C. Maximum pressure is controlled by a brass rupture disk R. Part of the explosion gases flow past the two flat areas on S. Temperature and composition of gases, and the time before the rupture disk breaks, can be controlled by amount and kind of powder used, and pressure can be controlled by using rupture disks of different thickness. While the explosion vessel used was not designed so that temperature and pressure could be measured, in other vessels of closely similar size and shape containing proportionate charges of the same kind of powder as that used for standard testing procedure, values of 2700°K and 50,000 psi were obtained. Since the orifices past the flat areas on the plug are small compared to the rupture disk hole (I:I6), most of the gas goes out through the rupture disk when it breaks. The amount that goes by the plug depends on (I) the pressure attained before the rupture disk breaks and (2) the time it takes for this pressure to be built UP. The second condition (examination at will after any firing) is met by using for specimens short rods that have flat areas ground on opposite sides. These flat

Jan 1, 1949

By R. Ingerson

Bore surfaces of used guns commonly show a pattern of cracks in various degrees of development. It has been suggested that these cracks may aid erosion by providing channelways for the gases, eventually leading to the tearing out of blocks of metal. Under the general studies of gun erosion conducted at the Geophysical Laboratory it appeared desirable to consider this factor, and to determine the resistance to surface cracking offered by gun steel and by various other materials that might be used in the bores of guns. Method and Apparatus In order to make such a determination it is necessary to have (I) an arrangement in which the surface to be studied can be subjected to conditions similar to those in a gun with respect to temperature, pressure (developed by explosion gases), composition of the gases and length of time the surface is exposed to the gases; and (2) a specimen that can be examined readily after any number of shots, and then fired again, if necessary. The first of these conditions can be met by using an explosion vessel designed by H. S. Roberts of the Geophysical Laboratory. Fig I shows a cross-section of the apparatus. The "gun" G from which the charge is fired is made from the receiver of a caliber 0.30 army rifle, M1903, and the charges are prepared in caliber 0.30 cartridge cases. The test specimen S is held in place by a cone-shaped plug P and by a steel bridge B which is bolted to the outside of the explosion vessel on either side of the section shown. The plug, in turn, is held in place by a screw collar C. Maximum pressure is controlled by a brass rupture disk R. Part of the explosion gases flow past the two flat areas on S. Temperature and composition of gases, and the time before the rupture disk breaks, can be controlled by amount and kind of powder used, and pressure can be controlled by using rupture disks of different thickness. While the explosion vessel used was not designed so that temperature and pressure could be measured, in other vessels of closely similar size and shape containing proportionate charges of the same kind of powder as that used for standard testing procedure, values of 2700°K and 50,000 psi were obtained. Since the orifices past the flat areas on the plug are small compared to the rupture disk hole (I:I6), most of the gas goes out through the rupture disk when it breaks. The amount that goes by the plug depends on (I) the pressure attained before the rupture disk breaks and (2) the time it takes for this pressure to be built UP. The second condition (examination at will after any firing) is met by using for specimens short rods that have flat areas ground on opposite sides. These flat

Jan 1, 1949

Secondary blast holes are now being pierced in quartzite and sandstone quarries, using multiple hand-operated Jet-Piercing units supplied with oxygen, fuel and water from a compact mobile carrier. A unit of this type, operating in a Canadian quarry, enabled four Jet-Piercing blowpipes to pierce blast holes for two hours without shutdown. The piercing blowpipes used were developed by Linde Air Products Co., a division of Union Carbide and Carbon Corp. The mobile supply carrier was constructed by the quarry from specifications supplied by Linde and modified by the quarry operators for their particular use. Employment of the new self-contained unit, which allows up to four operators to pierce approximately 450 ft of blast hole without shutdown, accelerates rock removal operations. Normally, only two blowpipes are in operation at one time. Large boulders or ledges, which sometimes remain after primary blasting to hamper loading operations, can, in the case of certain hard rock, be prepared for reduction more rapidly with these new units than by any other means. A special feature of the new manual Jet-Piercing unit is the mobile gas and fluid supply carrier. It consists of a standard truck chassis fitted out with four banks of large standard-capacity oxygen cylinders, a steel-holding tank for fuel oil, and a gasoline-driven air compressor and tank for pressurizing the fuel oil tank. Cooling water for the blowpipes is supplied to the unit from a hose extension to the quarry supply line. Feeder lines from the oxygen cylinder manifolds and the oil and water tanks terminate in four sets of take-off stations on the control panel at the rear of the truck. As many as four hand Jet-Piercing blowpipes can be connected to the take-off panel by high-pressure rubber hoses. The hand Jet-Piercing blowpipe used with the mobile supply carrier is a highly portable device which can be manipulated comfortably by one operator. The blowpipe can pierce blast holes at rates up to 60 ft per hour, depending on the properties of the rock. Blast holes can be pierced at any angle from the vertical to the horizontal, making it necessary for the operator to drill from the top of the boulder. Hole diameter is held to approximately that which allows the use of a standard 11/8-in. diameter dynamite. The manual Jet-Piercing blowpipe has these important design features: a burner from which the combustion gases emerge at supersonic speeds (in excess of 6000 ft per sec); a hole-sizing shell which controls the minimum size of the hole and protects the copper burner; and a sliding shield which protects the operator against the steam and spallings ejected from the hole during the piercing. The Jet piercing process has been applied successfully in United States and Canadian quarries within the last several years as an advanced method of "drilling" blast holes.

Jan 1, 1952

NEW YORK LOCAL SECTION Executive Committee Louis D. HUNTOON, Chairman ARTHUR S. DWIGHT, Vice-Chairman THOMAS T. READ, Secretary, Woolworth Bldg., New York, N. Y. E. MALTBY SHIPP, Treasurer GEORGE F. KUNZ W. DE L. BENEDICT Meeting, Jan. 16, .1914 A meeting of the New York Local Section of the American Institute of Mining Engineers was held at the Engineering Societies Building, 29 West 39th Street, New York City, Jan 16 1914 the Chairman, -L. D. Huntoon, presiding. Forty members weld present. In the absence of the Secretary, C. A. Bohn was appointed Secretary pro teen. N. H. Darton, Geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey, delivered an address on. The Occurrence of Gas in Coal, illustrated by lantern slides of charts, curves, and tables showing various features of gas occurrences. J. W. Richards, J. T. Beard, W. L. Saunders, L. D. Huntoon, and Mr. Darton participated in the discussion which followed the address. THOMAS T. READ; Secretary.

Jan 3, 1914

By T. S. Spicer

The relationship of coal characteristics to the principal types of firing equipment has been known to the coal combustion engineer, but is not as familiar a subject for purchasing agents, salesmen, consumers, and executives of coal-producing and consuming companies. This general survey of characteristics determined by standard laboratory tests, of major types of combustion techniques, and of the relationships between the two is directed toward the latter audience. It will also serve as a review for those actively engaged in the combustion of coal. Although the relationship of coal characteristics to the principal types of firing equipment is well known to the experienced coal combustion engineer, apparently there is need for a summary article on this subject. The author has received numerous requests for such a paper from purchasing agents, coal salesmen, coal customers and executives of coal-producing and consuming companies. Consequently, the scope of this paper will be directed to this audience, with the hope that it may serve also as a review to others actively engaged in the combustion of coal. The magnitude of this subject is so great that only a brief general treatise is possible. The author realizes that because there are so many special cases and exceptions to the generalities which follow, he is in jeopardy of contradicting himself. It is the hope, however, that the many references cited will prove valuable to those who wish to study the details excluded by necessity, due to space and time limitations. Hence, the characteristics of coals as determined by standard laboratory tests will be discussed; the major types of combustion techniques reviewed; and then the characteristics and firing will be related. CHARACTERISTICS OF UNITED STATES COALS The coals of the United States range from lignite to anthracite and each has its own general characteristics. The extensive coal fields of the U. S. are shown in Fig. 1 and the estimated reserve according to rank for each state is illustrated in Fig. 2. Coals may be classified according to rank as shown by Table I from the ASTM Standards on Coal and Coke, D-338-38.1 The basis of this classification is ac- cording to fixed carbon and heating value (Btu per pound) calculated to a mineral-matter-free basis. The high-rank coals are classified according to fixed carbon on the dry basis; and the low-rank coals according to Btu on the moist basis. Agglomerating and slacking (weathering) indices are used to differentiate between certain adjacent groups. While rank is not itself a characteristic it does signify certain characteristics that accompany a class of fuel. Anthracite, for example, immediately implies a hard, free-burning, smokeless coal of low volatile matter, usually having an ash of high fusibility. Coals may also be classified according to grade as described by ASTM Designation D-398-37.1 This quality classification is determined by size, calorific value, ash, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur. This type of classification is not used as extensively by the industry as the rank classification. Fig. 3 shows the heat value of different ranks compared to proximate analyses. Coals may also be classified by sizes, as shown in Tables IIA and IIB, and sizes can be on both top and bottom limits. If this is done, then the coal is called double screened; otherwise, either top or bottom sizes can be specified as a limit. Bituminous coal sizing varies from field to field and depends upon the market demand. The common sizes and their main uses are outlined in Table IIA. Anthracite is usually available in many sizes at the colliery, and Table IIB summarizes standard sizes and names. Although rank, grade, and size designations help identify and describe a coal in question, there still remain other characteristics such as indicated by moisture, free swelling index, grindability tests, etc. A bituminous coal information chart Table III) suggested for use in studying the available coals in a region, lists origin and chemical and physical characteristics. Even this more comprehensive list does not completely spell out all the characteristics of a heterogenous material like coal. For example,

Jan 1, 1961

Executive Committee. Louis D. HUNTOON, Chairman. ARTHUR S. DWIGHT, Vice- Chairman. E. MALTBY SHIPP, Treasurer. GEORGE F. KUNZ, HOMAS T. READ, Secretary. Woolworth Building, New York, N. Y. Meeting, May 2,1913. The Annual Meeting of the New York Section was held at the Engineering Societies Building, Friday evening. May 1913, at 8 p.m. Dr: Kunz presided. The Annual Report of the Secretary-Treasurer was read and accepted. Mr. Colvocoresses offered the following amendments to the By-Laws: ARTICLE II: First paragraph amended to read as follows: "The officers of this Section shall be. a Chairman, Vice-Chairman, Secretary, and Treasurer." In the second paragraph the word "four " to be changed to " five." ARTICLE V : The following paragraph to be inserted: ' The funds of this Section shall be received by the Treasurer, and shall be paid out only by check signed by the Treasurer, and in case of his absence or inability, the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, or the Secretary may act for the Treasurer." On motion duly seconded the amendments were adopted as read. The Nominating Committee, appointed by the Chairman, recommended the following men for officers : Chairman., Louis D. Huntoon ; Vice-Chair-man, Arthur S. Dwight; Secretary, Thomas T. Read, and Treasurer, E. Maltby Shipp. There being no other nominations, Mr. Rand moved that the Secretary be authorized to cast the vote for the members in favor of the men nominated. Motion carried. In reply to the circulars mailed regarding the summer outing the Secretary reported that 89 members approved and 9 did not approve of such an outing. The Chairman introduced Dr. M. Belowsky, of the University of Berlin, who addressed the meeting in German. Following Dr. Belowsky, the speaker of the evening, A. H. Fay; of the Bureau of Mines, discussed Metal Mine. Accidents.

Jan 6, 1913

By AIME AIME

CHARACTERIZING the annual meeting as the biggest and best one yet has happened so repeatedly that some may suspect it has become a conventional phrase, like "good morning," and yet, what else can be said when not only one but all the many who express an, opinion use exactly those words, while the first of the two adjectives refers to a physical fact that is established by count. Perhaps there were hose who thought it not the best, but if so they were too tactful to say it out loud. So without further ado . let us admit that the one hundred and thirty-ninth general meeting of the A. I. M. E. held; as our By-laws provide, in New York during the third week of February, was the biggest and best of them all. Perhaps it is because we appreciate friendliness more as we grow older, but somehow the friendly atmosphere seems to rise slowly in temperature with the passing of the years. The actual atmosphere on the opening morning was quite the contrary, Feb. 17 being the coldest clay, so far, of this winter, and the suburbanites claimed that their thermometers had registered 5" below zero when they got up, though the official records of the weather man did not go that low. From that time the temperature steadily rose until Thursday afternoon, when the official record of 66" constituted a record high for Feb. 20 at New York. The weather man explained it by learned discussion of highs and lows, but we suspect the A.I. M. E. members must have had something to do with it.

Jan 1, 1930

By Milton H. Fies

THE writer wishes to acknowledge at the outset his great sense of obligation to those who contributed so broadly and expertly to the preparation of this paper: Dr. Albert DeSmaele, Chairman of the Board of Directors of Socogaz, Belgium; Dr. Julien Venter, Director of the National Institute of Coal Mining and Coal Utilization Industry, Belgium; Dr. Roger Loison, Chief Engineer, French National Coal Research Board, France; and Dr. Erich Sarapuu of the Sinclair Coal Co., Kansas City, Missouri. Liberal use has been made in this paper of a recent publication on Russian, Italian, Belgian, and French experiments prepared jointly by the Centre d'Etudes et Recherches des Charbonnages de France (Cerchar) and the Institut National de l'Industrie Charbonnière of Belgium (Inichar).1 The writer is particularly indebted to Dr. E. T. Wilkins, of the Fuel Re¬search Station, London, and to Mr. James L. Elder, of the Alabama Under¬ground Gasification Experiment at Gorgas, Alabama, for their unfailing patience and effective support. Not only did these experienced and capable men edit and revise this discussion, but much of its content is a direct con¬tribution quoted in full from their memoranda. Without the assistance of all these colleagues, this presentation would not have been possible. It has been a privilege to serve and work with them and to acknowledge repeatedly their loyal cooperation. The recovery of the energy inherent in coal beds throughout the world has been done through the years by methods that today may be justly regarded as primitive. While the techniques of coal mining through the application of machines and the enhancement of information and skills have advanced to an extraordinary extent, particularly during the past 20 years, the underlying means is essentially the same as when man first began to mine coal. Despite this progress in the manner of coal mining, it continues today as a hazardous, toilsome, grimy task. Coal mining per se has advanced at a greater and more rapid stride in the past 25 years than the mining of any: other mineral, but the basic method is fundamentally the same as it was the first day a miner took a pick into his hands many centuries ago. This situation presents a challenge to mining engineers everywhere, from

Jan 1, 1953

By Horace W. Hindry

This paper presents the ingredients composing a type of oil-base mud that has been successfully used in drilling oil horizons in California, the effect of ingredient concentrations on physical properties, methods of handling at the well and possible advantages of a waterless drilling fluid with excellent plastering properties. INTRODUCTION AN oil-base mud is a rotary drilling fluid in which oil has been substituted for water as the principal liquid ingredient. In recent years such a mud has been developed and used successfully for drilling the oil horizons of wells in various California fields. There are several types of oil-base mud, but only the type that is currently used to any appreciable extent will be considered at this time. The oil-base drilling-mud compositions used by Shell Oil Company, Incorporated have been covered by several patent applications on which patents are expected to issue at an early date. The purpose of this paper is to present data on the fundamental design of the mud; the ingredients used and their specifications; the effect of ingredient concentration on physical properties; the selection of the proper mud; the facilities needed for handling the mud; and a general discussion [oil] drilling with oil-base mud. In view of the early stage of development of oil-base mud, the great number of variables, and the almost unlimited possible combinations of these variables, which in turn require extensive laboratory study, there are certain irregularities and omissions in the data presented here. However, it is believed that sufficient data are at hand to permit a fairly complete analysis of the characteristics of oil-base muds. In view of the excellent plastering properties of oil-base mud when properly proportioned, its use should: (I) minimize the possibility of impairing the natural flow potentialities of the producing horizon such as that resulting from infiltration of water from water-base muds; (2) permit smaller clearances for setting liners, since the mud sheath has no appreciable thickness; (3) eliminate the possibility of clogging the perforations of the liner with thick mud sheath; (4) facilitate the removal of the mud sheath from the walls of the hole, for its mud sheath has no appreciable strength; (5) assist in drilling through formations, such as "heaving shale," where water wetting appears to be a source of difficulty. (6) permit cores to be obtained without contamination from drilling water. FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN OF AN OIL-BASE MUD In the design of any rotary drilling mud it is necessary to select materials that will fulfill the following requirements: (I) act as the liquid medium and regulate the viscosity; (2) impart initial and final plastering properties; (3) give gel strength and structure in order to prevent settling; (4) serve as a weighting material. The

Jan 1, 1941

By H. I. Aaronson, H. A. Domian, G. M. Pound

Zener's two-parameter theory of the y a reaction in Fe-X alloys is extended to encornpass austenite-stabilizing as well as fewite-stabilizing elements, and is then cottzbitzed with statistical thermodynamic theories of Fe-C alloys to permit development of a ther-modynamic description of the proeutectoid fewite reaction in Fe-C-X alloys. Equilibrium tielines are calculated for tile a + y rep'on from experimental data and frort extrapolations of the y/y +a equilibrium surface. Sectzovs of the y/y + 0 surface are calculaled for the tzetastable sstuation LYL u-kich alloyrtg eleitzents do not partition betzseen azrstenite andfer-rite. The finding that the metastable y/a + y curves Lie close to their equilibriuwz counterparts when X = Si, .Vo, Co, Al, and Cu but well below them when X = A/ln or Ari pr-elides a thermodunamic explanation for the expcri1?7e?ztally obserted absence of partition during the proeutec toid ferrite reartlon in the fortner alloys and for the occurrence of partition at hzgher ternperatures in the latter alloys. Cotarison ofno- patitzoa free-energy changes and y/y i a curr,es in Fe-C-X alloys with the equilibrium 11al1es of these quantities in Fe-C alloys furnishes additional qualitative insight into the irqluence of allojling elements upon the kinetics of the proeutectoicl ferrite reaction. THE introduction of a substitutional alloying element, X, appreciably complicates calculation of the thermodynamics of the formation of proeutectoid ferrite from austenite. As noted in the preceding paper,' the positional entropy of the interstitial species is the principal component of the free energy of an interstitial solid solution with which theory has so far been able to deal. One would expect, however, that other components of the free energy of this type of solid solution may be significantly altered by the addition of a substitutional alloying element. Even if the assumptions are made, by analogy to the case of Fe-C alloys,' that changes in the positional entropy of carbon represent a significant part of the thermodynamic effects of an alloying element, and that the remaining effects can be taken into account by fitting the equations developed on this basis to experimental data on Fe-C-X phase diagrams or on the activities of carbon in alloyed austenite and ferrite, the experimental information available on either of these quantities is not yet sufficiently accurate or extensive, respectively, to make such an approach useful. An attempt made by Zener on the former basis to explain the effects of alloying elements on the thermodynamics of Fe-C alloys in terms of a temperature-independent "free-energy change" (actually enthalpy hane') required to transfer 1 mole of an alloying element from austenite to ferrite, in which the "free-energy change" was determined by fitting the theoretical relationships developed to Fe-C-X phase diagrams, thus proved inadequate in part because of deficiencies in the available ternary-phase-diagram data.= Other difficulties of a more fundamental nature, however, also indicated the desirability of a different approach to the problem.3y4y6 zener6 subsequently proposed that the free-energy change associated with y — a transformation in pure iron can be decomposed into magnetic and nonmagnetic components. Alloying elements were assumed to affect those components separately. One parameter was used to describe the quantitative effect exerted on each component. These parameters were evaluated from Ms (martensite-start) temperature data and from other experimental information usually either readily available or measurable with acceptable accuracy. Zener applied this treatment only to the calculation of Fe-X phase diagrams in which X is a ferrite-stabilizing element. In the present study, this treatment is extended to include austenite-stabilizing elements, and then combined with treatments previously considered for Fe-C alloys1 to permit calculation of the thermodynamic quantities of interest in the austenite - proeutectoid ferrite transformation in Fe-C-X alloys, where a number of representative, and commonly used alloying elements are chosen for X, including Si, Mn, Co, Mo, Al, Cr, and Cu. The results are used to explain important features of the partition of alloying elements between austenite and proeutectoid ferrite, as reported in a companion paper7 on the basis of electron-probe analysis, and to provide some additional understanding of the influence of alloying elements upon the kinetics of nucleation and growth of proeutectoid ferrite. Portions of this treatment6 have been clarified in the course of a review by Kaufman and Cohen.3 The consolidated summary of these developments with which this section is begun provides a basis for further clarification of the treatment, from which extension to include austenite- as well as ferrite-stabilizing elements is a natural consequence. The division of the free-energy change associated with the 7 - a transformation in pure iron, into two independent components is formally stated as:

Jan 1, 1967

By W. Philippoff

ALTHOUGH Gaudin1 and more recently Sutherland2 have calculated the probability of collision of a falling mineral particle with a rising bubble, there is no published information concerning the details of the mechanism of attachment of a collector-coated particle to a bubble. During the past year the writer has developed a theory for the mechanism of attachment, which has been substantiated experimentally. Funds for the investigation and for some of the equipment used have been supplied by the Mines Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota. Motion picture studies of the phenomena involved in the collision between mineral particles and bubbles, such as those of Spedden and Hannan," show that the contact can be completed within 0.3 millisec. Formulas developed for rigid bodies have hitherto been used' for the calculation of the motion of bubble and particle, but it is obvious that a bubble cannot be regarded as a rigid body. On the contrary, Spedden and Hannan's pictures show a great degree of deformation during the collision. The time of attachment was calculated as the time the particle drifted past the bubble. Time of Collision The theory presented in this paper enables calculation of the time of collision, using the concept that the bubble, or more generally, a liquid-air interface, acts as an elastic body. The elasticity, defined as the restoring force on a mechanical deformation, is caused by the surface tension and is the result of the principle of the minimum of free surface energy. It is well known that an elasticity together with a mass determines a frequency of vibration. The vibrations of jets and drops caused by the elasticity of the interface are known to comply exactly with the classical theory of capillarity.' However, the vibrations of isolated bubbles, as distinct from foams, have not been investigated previously. The following equation, presented elsewhere,' has been deduced for these frequencies: 3_____________________ fB = 9.20.vV.vn. (n-1).(n+2)/8 [I] in which fB is the frequency of a harmonic of the bubble in cycles per second, V the volume of the bubble in cc, n a number determining the order of the harmonic, and n = 2 the basic vibration. The first (basic) harmonic describes a change of the spherical bubble to an ellipsoidal bubble. The higher harmonics are more complicated, for the circumference of the bubble is divided approximately into as many parts as the order of the harmonic. As an example, Spedden and Hannan's published motion picture of a vibrating bubble corresponds to the sixth harmonic. Eq 1 shows that only the first and third harmonics are simple multiples (1 and 3), all the others being irrational fractions of the basic frequency. This means that the shape of the vibration can change with time and is in general unsym-metric in respect to the time axis. Such conditions prevail when there is a distributed elasticity or mass, as in the case of vibrating membranes or rods. The constant 9.20 is valid for water at room temperature, but a general solution involving the physical constants of the liquid has not been found. The case of the floating particle is much easier to treat than that of the bubble. It can be assumed that the elasticity is caused exclusively by the interface and that the mass is concentrated in the particle together with some adhering water. The following expression for the frequency of a system of one degree of freedom can be applied: fP = -1/2-vE/m [2] Here fp is the frequency of the particle vibration in cycles per second, E the elasticity in dynes per cm, and m the mass in grams. The classical theory of impact phenomena gives the time of collision during the striking of a spring (in this case the surface of the bubble) by a mass, as: t, = 2/f = nvm/E [3] It is now possible to develop an expression for the elasticity of a floating cylindrical particle. The force equilibrium of a cylinder floating end on at the air-liquid interface is given by the well-known equation (Poisson7 1831) P = /4 D2-pL-g-h + D.y sin a [4] which accounts for the buoyancy and the action of the surface tension where P is the force acting on the particle in dynes (weight-buoyancy), D the diameter of the cylinder in cm, PL the density of the liquid in grams per cc, g the acceleration of gravity = 981 cm per sec2, h the depression of the cylinder below the surface of the liquid in cm, y the surface tension in dynes per cm and a the supporting angles or the one required to insure equilibrium, a being smaller than the contact angle 0. Although demonstrated by Poisson, it has not

Jan 1, 1953

By W. Philippoff

ALTHOUGH Gaudin1 and more recently Sutherland2 have calculated the probability of collision of a falling mineral particle with a rising bubble, there is no published information concerning the details of the mechanism of attachment of a collector-coated particle to a bubble. During the past year the writer has developed a theory for the mechanism of attachment, which has been substantiated experimentally. Funds for the investigation and for some of the equipment used have been supplied by the Mines Experiment Station of the University of Minnesota. Motion picture studies of the phenomena involved in the collision between mineral particles and bubbles, such as those of Spedden and Hannan," show that the contact can be completed within 0.3 millisec. Formulas developed for rigid bodies have hitherto been used' for the calculation of the motion of bubble and particle, but it is obvious that a bubble cannot be regarded as a rigid body. On the contrary, Spedden and Hannan's pictures show a great degree of deformation during the collision. The time of attachment was calculated as the time the particle drifted past the bubble. Time of Collision The theory presented in this paper enables calculation of the time of collision, using the concept that the bubble, or more generally, a liquid-air interface, acts as an elastic body. The elasticity, defined as the restoring force on a mechanical deformation, is caused by the surface tension and is the result of the principle of the minimum of free surface energy. It is well known that an elasticity together with a mass determines a frequency of vibration. The vibrations of jets and drops caused by the elasticity of the interface are known to comply exactly with the classical theory of capillarity.' However, the vibrations of isolated bubbles, as distinct from foams, have not been investigated previously. The following equation, presented elsewhere,' has been deduced for these frequencies: 3_____________________ fB = 9.20.vV.vn. (n-1).(n+2)/8 [I] in which fB is the frequency of a harmonic of the bubble in cycles per second, V the volume of the bubble in cc, n a number determining the order of the harmonic, and n = 2 the basic vibration. The first (basic) harmonic describes a change of the spherical bubble to an ellipsoidal bubble. The higher harmonics are more complicated, for the circumference of the bubble is divided approximately into as many parts as the order of the harmonic. As an example, Spedden and Hannan's published motion picture of a vibrating bubble corresponds to the sixth harmonic. Eq 1 shows that only the first and third harmonics are simple multiples (1 and 3), all the others being irrational fractions of the basic frequency. This means that the shape of the vibration can change with time and is in general unsym-metric in respect to the time axis. Such conditions prevail when there is a distributed elasticity or mass, as in the case of vibrating membranes or rods. The constant 9.20 is valid for water at room temperature, but a general solution involving the physical constants of the liquid has not been found. The case of the floating particle is much easier to treat than that of the bubble. It can be assumed that the elasticity is caused exclusively by the interface and that the mass is concentrated in the particle together with some adhering water. The following expression for the frequency of a system of one degree of freedom can be applied: fP = -1/2-vE/m [2] Here fp is the frequency of the particle vibration in cycles per second, E the elasticity in dynes per cm, and m the mass in grams. The classical theory of impact phenomena gives the time of collision during the striking of a spring (in this case the surface of the bubble) by a mass, as: t, = 2/f = nvm/E [3] It is now possible to develop an expression for the elasticity of a floating cylindrical particle. The force equilibrium of a cylinder floating end on at the air-liquid interface is given by the well-known equation (Poisson7 1831) P = /4 D2-pL-g-h + D.y sin a [4] which accounts for the buoyancy and the action of the surface tension where P is the force acting on the particle in dynes (weight-buoyancy), D the diameter of the cylinder in cm, PL the density of the liquid in grams per cc, g the acceleration of gravity = 981 cm per sec2, h the depression of the cylinder below the surface of the liquid in cm, y the surface tension in dynes per cm and a the supporting angles or the one required to insure equilibrium, a being smaller than the contact angle 0. Although demonstrated by Poisson, it has not

Jan 1, 1953

By R. J. Wygal

A method is presented by which homogeneous, isotropic, and reproducible aggregates of particles such as glass beads, sand, ground glass, etc., may be prepared simply and quickly by using a "particle distributor". Several applications of the packing method to the construction of model reservoirs are described. The flow characteristics of these packings me given. Some factors which limit the usefulness of unconsolidated packs for simulating reservoir rock are overcome through artificial cementation of the aggregates. INTRODUCTION Many laboratory studies of porous media are based on experiments using test packs of sand, glass beads and other granular materials. More confidence can be had in the results of such studies if the test packs are known to have uniform properties throughout, to be mechanically stable and to be accurately reproducible. This paper presents a method by which such packs of a variety of shapes and sizes may be constructed using a particle distributor. Some factors which limit the usefulness of unconsolidated packs as a means for simulating reservoir rock are described. A method of overcoming these limitations, which involves artificial cementation of the packs, is presented. DEVELOPMENT Particles packed by the tamping or vibrating techniques are usually either non-uniform or mechanically unstable. An invention by Currie and Gregoryl overcomes these difficulties to some extent. The invention is based on the use of a stream of falling particles impinging on and passing through a distributor matrix of several layers of closely spaced spheres. The particles are well dispersed by numerous collisions with the spheres. They become homogeneously distributed at some distance below the distributor matrix and at that position are collected in the sample container. This apparatus, however, was found to be ineffective when small particles were used since small particles accumulate on the top surfaces of the spheres. An improved distributor matrix was made, first in the form of a stack of five sieves, and then in the more adaptable form of spaced layers of wire screen. Fig. 1 shows a longitudinal view through a five-layered distributor of eight-mesh wire screen. This device gives excellent results.* Fine particles pass through the distributor with very little hold up. The fine structure of the wire matrix with its many deflecting surfaces ensures good particle distribution. There are no dead areas immediately below the screen as were sometimes observed to occur below a matrix of spheres. Using such a device, 20-30 mesh sands were packed to a porosity of 32.1 per cent at rates varying from 0.17 to 6 lb/rnin. The lowest porosity achieved by tamping small increments of similar sands into a container was 33 per cent. Motion pictures at 3,000 frarnes/sec of the surface of a growing pack of 2-3/4 mm glass beads have helped to show the mechanism by which packs of low porosity are obtained. The beads, although packed at the rate of 5 lb/min, were observed to hit the pack surface singly, for the most part, and at well spaced points of impact. Part of their energy is transferred to surface beads which are thereby

MONTANA SECTION W. C. SIDERFIN, Chairman, OSCAR ROHN, Vice-Chairman, E. B. YOUNG, Secretary-Treasurer, 526, Hennesey Building, Butte, Mont. F. W. BACORN, C. D. DEMOND. The semi-annual meeting of the Montana Section was held at the Silver Bow Club, Butte, Montana, on Friday, Nov. 16, at 8 p. m.; this was a postponement of the regular October meeting because of conflict in date with the St. Louis meeting of the Institute. An informal dinner was served to 68 members and guests. After dinner, Chairman W. C. Siderfin called the meeting to order. The minutes of the annual meeting, of Feb. 2, 1917, and the special meeting of May 21, 1917, were read and approved. C. W. Goodale led the discussion with "Notes on the St. Louis Meeting." He was followed by J. H. Warner who spoke on " The Joplin and Miami Districts," and by J. L: Bruce, Alexander Leggatt, N. B. Braly, and E. B. Young, the latter speaking on the work of the War Minerals Committee; and on the Cosden Oil Refinery at West Tuba, Okla. R. H. Sales reviewed briefly the manganese situation. E. N. Norris presented a paper on "Fire Proofing of Mine Shafts by the Anaconda Copper Mining Co." This resulted in interesting discussion by C. L. Berrien, C. E. Nighman, N. B. Braly, W. B. Daly, B. H. Dunshee, and J. J. Carrigan. C. L. Berrien and C. E. Nighman presented their papers on "Fire Extinction by Hydraulic Filling." In view of the late hour, discussion was waived. The executive committee, by unanimous consent, decided to request written discussion of the above papers to be presented at the next meeting, in February. B. B. Thayer spoke interestingly on the work of the Naval Consulting Board, and referred to the arsenic situation. Spencer Miller, also a, member of the Naval Consulting Board, entertained the-meeting with a vivid description of the method of "Coaling Battleships at Sea." Robert Sticht of Tasmania, in a short talk, spoke feelingly of his relations with the United States. At a late hour adjournment ended a most successful and interesting meeting. E. B. YOUNG, Secretary.

Jan 1, 1918