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By J. E. Hackford

In some research work carried out by the writer, certain results have been obtained which bear on the fundamental nature and origin of coal and the relationship between coal and petroleum. Without entering into a discussion of the details of the experiments, which were conducted on petroleum and derived bitumens, there are given here, by way of definition, some of the relations that the writer has established between certain classes of bitumens of petroliferous origin. Bitumen.—-A natural organic substance, gaseous, liquid, or solid, consisting of hydrocarbons and the oxy-or thionic derivatives of the same, or of a mixture of all three. Diaspha1tenes.—-Those portions of bitumens that are soluble in ether or carbon disulfide, but are insoluble in a mixture of equal parts of ether and alcohol. Diasphaltenes are produced by the oxidation or thionization of petroleum oils; they have, as the name indicates, twice the molecular weight of asphaltenes, into which they are converted when subjected to moderate temperature. For example, an artificially produced diasphaltene, which was readily soluble in pentane and ether, was quite insoluble in either of these solvents after heating for three weeks at a temperature of 100" C., and was converted into an insoluble asphaltene. Aspha1tenes.—Those portions of bitumen that are insoluble in ether or ether alcohol but are soluble in carbon disulfide. Aspha1tites.—Those solid or semisolid natural bitumens that are composed, for the most part, of asphaltenes or diasphaltenes. A pure asphaltitel would be composed wholly of asphaltenes and diasphaltenes, but most asphaltites contain small percentages of oil and wax, which have not yet been converted into asphaltenes; they may also contain A small percent.age of kerotenes, which represent the next stage of the metamorphosis of asphaltenes. Among the naturally occurring oxyasphaltites may be mentioned grahamite; and among the thioasphaltites, gilsonite.

Jan 1, 1921

By J. M. Callow

HISTORICAL SKETCH THE selective action of oils for lustrous minerals was first disclosed by Haynes in 1860. In 1885, Miss Carrie Everson elaborated this idea and also disclosed the fact that acid increased the. so-called selective action. Her patent called for oils, either animal, vegetable or mineral, also for an acid or salt. The process was tried out on a practical scale in Baker City and Leadville, in 1889, and failed: first, because,, as has since been shown, of the unsuitability of the ore to flotation; and second, because the invention was too far in advance of the times. Then followed the Elmore brothers, first with their bulk oil processes and later with their vacuum method. The basic principles of oil flotation were undoubtedly covered by the above inventors, the work done since their time being merely a building up on ground work laid by them. Different kinds of oil, different quantities of oil, and all the varying degrees of agitation, were all exemplified and practiced by them in one phase or another, and the developments that have since been made are but elaborations of the fundamental principles laid down by Haynes, Everson, and the Elmore brothers. In 1902, the Potter-Delprat process was developed in Australia. In this process no oil was used, the mineral being raised by the generation of gas, brought about by the introduction of acid into the pulp. The mineral particles appeared on the surface of the separatory vessel, in the form of a scum or froth, buoyed up-by minute gas bubbles attached to them. This no doubt first gave the suggestion of gaseous flotation. In 1902, also, Fromont, an Italian, was granted a patent in which. he combined violent agitation with oil and gaseous flotation, the gas being generated within the pulp, in much the same way as in the Potter-Delprat process.

Jan 12, 1915

By Francisco Cadena

THE construction of Norris Dam, built by the Tennessee Valley Authority on the Clinch River, a tributary of the Tennessee River, involved the production of coarse and fine aggregate for approximately 1,000,000 cu. yd. of concrete. A hammer-mill plant for the manufacture of sand from quarried rock was indicated as the most economical method of providing this material. The abrasive character of the feed as compared to the average hammer-mill feed made it necessary to control operations rather closely, and this resulted in the accumulation of many data bearing on production and maintenance. This paper will deal only with three specific sets of data, accompanied by such general information as may be necessary to explain the conditions under which they were obtained and followed by discussions on the relation of silica content to hammer wear, comparative costs of slugger and stirrup hammers, and comparative costs of tool-steel and manganese-steel grate bars. Coarse Aggregate Aggregate for the concrete poured at Norris Dam came from a dolomite quarry within 2000 ft. of the west abutment of the dam. Geologically this rock is known as a Knox dolomite. A typical chemical analysis is given in Table 1. TABLE 1 .-Typica.1 Chemica1 Analysis [PER CENT H20,1100F ............................................ 0.0'2 Ignitionloss ............................................. 43.56 MgO .................................................. 19.19 CaO .................................................... 29.07 FezO .................................................... 0.39 A1203 .................................................... 1.94 FezO .................................................... 0.39 A1203 .................................................... 1.94 ..................................................... 5.75 SO2.. .................................................. Tr.] Rock was carried by 12-yd. dump trucks to a 42-in. gyratory crusher set at 6 1/2 in. The product of the primary crusher was taken by a belt conveyor to a double-deck vibrating screen followed by a 5 1/2-ft. cone

Jan 1, 1937

"The chief aim in style ought to be absolute precision", said Flaubert. "There is only one noun that can express your idea, only one verb that can set that idea in motion, and only one adjective that is the proper epithet for that noun." Let this be your motto. The engineer tries to be exact in all his measurements; he should measure his language with similar exactness. The technical term is a word of precision. It is not only precise, it is a word-saver. To the unscientific the earth is "a ball slightly flattened at the poles, something like an orange". To the scientific it is "an oblate spheroid". A similar contrast between the precision of the technical term and the vagueness of common words is afforded by a conversation between Ivanhoe and Rebecca: " ' What device does he bear on his shield?' asked Ivanhoe. 'Something resembling a bar of iron, and a padlock painted blue on a black shield.' 'A fetterlock and shacklebolt azure', said Ivanhoe"-using the technical terms of heraldry. It is good style in writing, however, to adapt your manner of expression to the intelligence and experience of the person or persons to whom the writing is addressed. The description of a mine should be worded differently according as it is intended to inform a mining engineer, a director, or a bishop. REMEMBER THE READER. It is as incorrect to write in a technical way for a non-technical reader as to write in a popular way for a technical or scientific reader. That style is best which enables the writer to place himself in the closest mental touch with his reader, to establish the maximum of sympathetic understanding. Let your precision be proportioned to your accuracy. You should not try to be precise in matters that do not admit of

Jan 1, 1931

By John Gross

The study of the energy used in crushing operations has advanced from a period of perplexing confusion to one of greater clarity. Only within the last few years has any true conception of the work in crushing been possible, owing to the chaotic state of theoretical knowledge. For some 20 years a controversy existed between those advocating the Rittinger law and those advocating the Kick law. The Kick law now appears to be definitely out of the picture, and crushing efficiency may be based confidently on the Rittinger theory. There also seems to be a generally crystallized conception as to the meaning and nature of sub-sieve material. There is needed a simple, direct method for determining surface on a crushed ore product, and also a simple and accepted method for size determination on minus 400-mesh material. The Crushing Law The Rittinger(l)‡ theory of crushing was advanced in 1867 and the Kick(3) theory in 1885. While the Rittinger theory might have been accepted without much question and actually had been accepted by many investigators, a serious doubt as to its validity was raised by Stadler(10) who upon purely theoretical grounds proclaimed the Kick "law" as the true law of crushing. According to Rittinger the energy required in successive steps in reduction increases geometrically, while according to Kick the energy increases arithmetically. These "laws" therefore are at variance, and the establishment of the true law was recognized as of first importance. Many simple experiments have been made to demonstrate the application of the Rittinger theory to crushing, and it would seem that its simplicity should favor its acceptance. Experimental evidence, however, was not convincing, as no reliable data could be obtained on the finer material from a crushing or grinding operation. Gates,(13) Bell,(19)

Jan 1, 1935

By Roland D. Parks

THERE are strong indications that chromium steel will one day hold the balance of power among all types of steel. Today, it is going to the forefront in military and civilian use. Stainless steel has received a tremendous impetus because of military demands. Chromium plays a primary, and possibly the most significant roll in the manufacture of stainless and other high temperature alloys. By any standard, chromium ranks among the most strategic of metals. Jet planes would still be on the drawing boards instead of flying in MIG Alley. Many of its more recent applications are the closely guarded secrets of the Pentagon and Government laboratories. Chromium has forged far ahead of the days when it merely decorated an automobile or made the American kitchen sparkle. The United States consumed one half of all chromium ores produced in the world during the past 50 years and 55 pct of those produced in the past decade. During those same periods, some 85 pct of world production of crude ores came from mines in the eastern hemisphere. Cuba is the only substantial supplier in the western hemisphere and most of the Cuban ore is suitable for use only in refractories. In presenting the strategic aspects of the chromium situation it will be helpful to give certain technical data as background without going beyond the detail needed for the survey. Use Pattern Ores containing chromium are consumed by the metallurgical, refractory, and chemical industries. In the United States, postwar consumption by these industries has been in the approximate proportions .of 47:37:16, respectively. In two industries, metal¬lurgical and chemical, the ores are first converted to intermediate products. . For metallurgical use, the ores are usually smelted in electric furnaces to ferrochromium, an

Jan 1, 1952

By William L. Fink, Dana W. Smith

Approximately two years ago the authors obtained data that indicated that initial precipitation could not be detected by change of lattice parameter in the aluminum-rich aluminum-magnesium alloys. Some of these data were first published in a brief note in Mining and Metallurgy'. Cast specimens were used at that time and they showed initial precipitation relatively sooner than sheet material of the same composition. For this reason a more thorough investigation has been carried out using a homogenized aluminum-magnesium sheet corltairling approximately 10 per cent magnesium. Materials.—The aluminum used in the preparation of the aluminum-magnesium alloy was of high purity, containing less than 0.01 per cent each of iron, silicon and copper. The magnesium was high-purity sublimed magnesium. Preparation of Alloy.—Approximately 4 kg. of the aluminunl was melted in a plumbago crucible in an electric furnace and the magnesium was added. The melt was thoroughly stirred with a graphite rod and fluxed with chlorine gas before casting. The alloy was cast in the form of a sheet ingot in a cold iron tilting mold (approximately 200 by 165 by 40 mm.) and into small chill-cast slabs for chemical analysis (75 by 40 by 5 mm.). The chemical analyses were made upon drillings from the analysis slabs. The analytical methods were those described in "Chemical Analysis of Aluminum," published by the Aluminum Company of America. The composition of the alloy was found to be: magnesium 10.30, silicon 0.013, iron 0.008 and copper 0.005 per cent. In order to insure homogeneity the alloy was given two intermediate anneals at 430' C. for a total time of 36 hr. The ingot was hot-rolled

Jan 1, 1937

By Leo F. Reinartz

This is the fourth and final installment of Leo Reinartz' summation of the steelmaking industry over the first one hundred years. ALTHOUGH basic open-hearth steel has been in the limelight for many years, it has had to share some of its glory with two lesser but nevertheless important rivals, one 50 years old and one a rejuvenated process. Electric steel Electric-steel manufacture began in a humble way in the United States in 1906, when the first heat was tapped from a 3-ton Heroult electric furnace at the Halcomb Steel Co., Syracuse, N. Y. During the intervening years, it has completely eliminated the crucible process. For many years electric melting furnaces were located predominantly in relatively small, nonintegrated plants, making all kinds of high-grade alloy steels. Most of these furnaces, with capacities ranging from 5 to 20 tons, had basic bottoms. During and after World War II, many large basic electric furnaces, some up to 200 tons in capacity, were installed in integrated plants to make commodity steels. There were several reasons for building electric furnaces. Capital investment per annual ton of capacity was low and furnaces could be installed quickly. Since these furnaces used mostly scrap iron in the charge, no extra expensive coke- and blast-furnace capacity had to be added. The perfection of the top-charging design, and the development of large transformers and furnaces, made possible tons per hour as high as from modern 350-ton. open-hearth furnaces. Electric furnaces have high availability and repair costs are low. The process is flexible. Alloy and plain carbon steels of high quality can be made. Where power costs are low, the operating cost can

Jan 1, 1961

By H. S. Geismer

Campbell,' in 1896 said: "The Birmingham district in Alabama has certain great advantages for there are few places in the world where fuel and ore are so near together, although, unfortunately, both are of inferior quality; the ore being low in iron and high in phosphorus and the coal giving a weak and impure coke." This statement could not have been questioned in 1894, but by 1896 several Robinson-Ramsay washers had been put into operation and weak and impure coke was a thing of the past. The Warrior coal field of Alabama contains six seams that yield coking coal of excellent quality. In descending order, they are Brookwood, Milldale, Pratt, America, Mary Lee, and Black Creek. In each of these, however, bands of rock and bone coal of varying thickness are stratified with the coal; and while some of these impurities can be separated from the coal by the miner, much of it must be loaded out with the coal. Consequently, unless the coal is washed before being coked, it will yield a coke of varying ash and sulfur content quite unsatisfactory for blastfurnace use. At present, the Gulf States Steel Co. is producing run-of-mine coal at its Virginia mine, from the America seam, that is uniformly low enough in ash to permit of coking without washing, but this is the only exception to the above statement. Alabama was the first state to experiment seriously with coal washers, was the first to install washers on a large scale and, up to the present, has maintained the lead. The Alabama State Mine Inspector reports that during 1923 20,919,303 tons of bituminous coal was mined in Alabama; 12,858,499 tons of which was delivered to coal washers for treatment.

Jan 1, 1925

By C. C. Singleterry, D. L. Katz

The critical phenomena have been studied during the past century but our knowledge of the critical temperatures and pressures of complex hydrocarbon mixtures still is very limited. The critical temperatures and pressures of pure substances have been examined in large numbers120 and in great detail.11.17 No experimental determinations of the critical phenomena have been reported on such complex hydrocarbon systems as a reservoir fluid. The critical temperature is defined by Taylor18 as follows: "there is some temperature for each gas above which the gas cannot be liquefied. This temperature is called the critical temperature." The critical pressure of a pure substance is the vapor pressure at the critical temperature. It should be noted that these definitions refer to a given substance in the pure state and do not mean that the pure substance cannot be liquefied in the presence of a second constituent. The normal procedure for obtaining the critical temperature of a substance is to heat it in a glass tube 1,20 under pressure until the meniscus between the liquid and vapor phase disappears, although other methods, especially for mixtures, have been used.13,14 However, when considering oil and gas reservoirs, it is more enlightening to consider a critical phenomenon that occurs when a mixture of oil and gas are compressed at a reservoir temperature until the meniscus disappears because the two phases become equal in composition. This conception, along with erroneous applications of the definition of the critical phenomena of a pure substance to that pure substance when it is part of a complex mixture, has caused confusion even among persons familiar with the classical theories. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the critical phenomena of pure substances and mixtures and to report experimental data on a mixture of

Jan 1, 1939

By M. L. Fuller

MOST commercial alloys undergo changes in phase composition after casting. This is a natural result of the fact that the alloys are not in a state of phase equilibrium as cast and phase changes will therefore take place, with more or less rapidity, in an attempt to attain equilibrium. The practical aspect of aging in zinc-alloy die castings concerns the changes in physical properties and in dimensions that may accompany aging phase changes. Harmful alterations have been reduced to a minimum and zinc-alloy die castings are being produced today that are so stable with respect to dimensions and physical properties that they are entirely suitable for most practical purposes1. In the first paper' of this series, and in this paper, aging phase changes of zinc alloy die castings have been investigated and the possible influence of these changes on dimensional changes of the castings has been evalu-ated and compared with the dimensional changes actually experienced. The change of dimensions has been selected for practical comparison in these papers because the effect of phase changes on the dimensions of a casting is directly calculable; from X-ray crystal-analysis data of the phase structure. The die-casting alloys considered contain, in addition to zinc, 4 per cent of aluminum, about 0.03 per cent magnesium, and from 0 to 3 per cent of copper. It was shown in the former paper that the eutectoidal decomposition of the beta aluminum-zinc phase, while intrinsically capable of causing a considerable shrinkage, can have very little effect on the observed shrinkage of die castings because it takes place within a few days of aging, whereas the observed shrinkage continues for five weeks. It was therefore concluded that the other existing phase change,

Jan 1, 1936

By Frederick Laist

(Butte Meeting, August, 1913.) WHILE remodeling No. 1 section of the concentrator at the Washoe Reduction Works of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. during the summer of 1912, for the purpose of ascertaining what additional metal recoveries could be made by improvements in concentration practice which had been developed by the staff of the Boston & Montana Reduction Department, at Great Falls, it was deemed advisable to carry on some experiments on the treatment of the regular mill tailings by roasting and leaching, to see whether the losses of metal values might not be still further decreased. In the course of these experiments about 5,000 tons of tailings were roasted, and of the resulting calcine about 200 tons were leached. The results were so satisfactory that it was decided to continue the work on a larger scale, particularly as regards the leaching end of the process, and construction work on an 80-ton roasting and leaching plant was accordingly commenced during the latter part of February, 1913, and is being pushed as rapidly as possible. 80-Ton Leaching Plant. This plant will consist of one 20-ft. roasting furnace of the MacDougall type, specially adapted to the work of roasting for leaching; two leaching tanks, .32 ft. in diameter by 12 ft, deep, together with the necessary solution tanks, air lifts, precipitating launders, etc. It has been decided to precipitate the copper from solution on scrap iron, so as not to hamper the roasting and leaching departments by any weakness that might develop in the precipitating department. It is, however, the intention to experiment with a number of different methods of precipitation ; for example, by electrolysis and by hydrogen sulphide.

Jan 7, 1913

By Ralph A. Sherman

In these days of intense competition for the domestic fuel market much is heard of the low efficiencies with which solid fuels, and most particularly bituminous coal, are burned in domestic heating equipment. In contrast to the every-day operating efficiencies of 85 and 90 per cent in large, central, electric-generating stations, efficiencies of 50 per cent and lower are cited for the hand-fired home furnace. Just as the miles per gallon of gasoline is only one of the factors that determine the cost of operation of an automobile, so the thermal efficiency is only one factor in the cost of domestic or other heating. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the total costs of domestic heating by various fuels and types of equipment, to determine the relative importance of efficiency and other factors, and to discuss what this signifies relative to the future of the use of fuels in the home. Factors That Govern the Choice of Fuel and Burning Equipment A rational, intelligent selection of fuel and equipment for heating the home would consider two groups of factors: Cost Factors Convenience Factors 1. Cost of potential heat in fuel 1. Attention 2. Efficiency of combustion and heat transfer 2. Dirt 3. Fixed charges 3. Noise a. Interest b. Depreciation c. Repairs 4. Power costs 5. Cost of handling ash and refuse. As just stated, the purpose of this paper is to analyze the relative importance of the five cost factors and not to discuss particularly the relative total costs of different methods of heating. However, to arrive at the percentage costs and to show clearly how they were determined, a statement of the total costs is unavoidable. One example only will

Jan 1, 1934

By W. C. Shanks

Seventeen deeps, which contain hot or cold brines and/or metalliferous sediments, have been discovered in the axial rift zone of the Red Sea. Metalliferous activity results from the unique geological setting of this incipient ocean basin: oceanic crust intruding in a central rift zone flanked by thick evaporite sequences. Brine pools tend to occur in structural depressions where- transform faults intersect the spreading axis. The most significant metalliferous occurrence is in the Atlantis II Deep, which contains approximately 227 Mt (dry weight) of metalliferous sediment which averages 1.04% Zn and 0.28% Cu. Higher potentially economic grades (3-6% Zn, 1% Cu, 50 glt Ag) occur in the Southwest Basin of the Atlantis II Deep, comprising total metal tonnages of 1.7 Mt Zn, 0.4 Mt Cu, and 5000 t Ag. The Pre-Pilot Mining Test conducted in 1979 raised 15 000 m3 of mud by a slurry process and demonstrated the feasibility of mining, concentration by froth flotation, and tailings disposal at sea. A Pilot Mining Test is scheduled for 1983-1984. The metalliferous discoveries in the Red Sea provide a model example of deep marine mineral exploration. Detailed mapping of bottom bathymetry and brine-interface reflectors using a high-resolution narrow-beam echo sounder has been the most effective exploration tool in the Red Sea. Followup coring has discovered additional metalliferous deposits in basins without present-day brines, and potential exists for additional discoveries. Geochemical exploration using heavy metals values in sediments (iron, manganese, zinc, copper, and mercury) and sulfur isotope values of sulfides are considered to be the most promising techniques for discovery of currently inactive deposits. Positive sulfur isotope values in the range I to 17 are an indication of hydrothermal sulfides in the Red Sea, and there is considerable contrast from back- ground bacteriogenic sulfides ( - 10 to - 45).

Jan 1, 1983

By R. L. Wilcox, M. L. Fuller

MOST commercial alloys undergo changes in phase composition after casting. This is a natural result of the fact that the alloys are not in a state of phase equilibrium as cast and phase changes will therefore take place, with more or less rapidity, in an attempt to attain equilibrium. The practical aspect of aging in zinc-alloy die castings concerns the changes in physical properties and in dimensions that may accompany aging phase changes. Harmful alterations have been reduced to a minimum and zinc-alloy die castings are being produced today that are so stable with respect to dimensions and physical properties that they are entirely suitable for most practical purposes1. In the first paper2 of this series, and in this paper, aging phase changes of zinc alloy die castings have been investigated and the possible influence of these changes on dimensional changes of the castings has been evaluated and compared with the dimensional changes actually experienced. The change of dimensions has been selected for practical comparison in these papers because the effect of phase changes on the dimensions of a casting is directly calculable from X-ray crystal-analysis data of the phase structure. The die-casting alloys considered contain, in addition to zinc, 4 per cent of aluminum, about 0.03 per cent magnesium, and from 0 to 3 per cent of copper. It was shown in the former paper that the eutectoidal decomposition of the beta aluminum-zinc phase, while intrinsically capable of causing a considerable shrinkage, can have very little effect on the observed shrinkage of die castings because it takes place within a few days of aging, whereas the observed shrinkage continues for five weeks. It was therefore concluded that the other existing phase change,

Jan 1, 1935

By C. C. Singleterry, D. L. Katz

The critical phenomena have been studied during the past century but our knowledge of the critical temperatures and pressures of complex hydrocarbon mixtures still is very limited. The critical temperatures and pressures of pure substances have been examined in large numbers120 and in great detail.11.17 No experimental determinations of the critical phenomena have been reported on such complex hydrocarbon systems as a reservoir fluid. The critical temperature is defined by Taylor18 as follows: "there is some temperature for each gas above which the gas cannot be liquefied. This temperature is called the critical temperature." The critical pressure of a pure substance is the vapor pressure at the critical temperature. It should be noted that these definitions refer to a given substance in the pure state and do not mean that the pure substance cannot be liquefied in the presence of a second constituent. The normal procedure for obtaining the critical temperature of a substance is to heat it in a glass tube 1,20 under pressure until the meniscus between the liquid and vapor phase disappears, although other methods, especially for mixtures, have been used.13,14 However, when considering oil and gas reservoirs, it is more enlightening to consider a critical phenomenon that occurs when a mixture of oil and gas are compressed at a reservoir temperature until the meniscus disappears because the two phases become equal in composition. This conception, along with erroneous applications of the definition of the critical phenomena of a pure substance to that pure substance when it is part of a complex mixture, has caused confusion even among persons familiar with the classical theories. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the critical phenomena of pure substances and mixtures and to report experimental data on a mixture of

Jan 1, 1939

By R. G. Hall

AN article on the subject of electrolytic zinc no longer needs to be preceded by an apology. The production of zinc by electrolysis is past the laboratory stage and has become an economic factor of considerable importance in the total production of zinc in the United States. The various methods of procedure to be, followed for the greatest economy of manufacture are fairly well known, consequently a detailed description of any method is no longer necessary or desirable. In this paper I shall endeavor to lay down some of the governing conditions in this industry, the relation of methods to ore deposits, freight rates, and sources of power supply. POWER POINTS Assuming for a moment that, for the present at least, the electrolytic production of zinc will be confined too those localities having developed water power, a glance at these powers so developed in the United States, with their relation to known zinc orebodies of economic size, will not be without interest. Northwest In the Northwest we have water powers, developed and undeveloped, in Washington and Montana. These must, of course, bear a close relation to the rapidly growing zinc production of the Coeur d'Alenes and of the Butte districts. In general, the power of the territory in question is relatively low-priced, at least as compared with the cost of developing power from coal, and the near neighborhood of large bodies of more or less complex zinc ores makes these water powers of more than usual interest. The same remarks may be applied equally to the developed water powers of the Canadian side of the line in the Northwest, where we have again commercially available complex ore deposits such as are being exploited today at and near Trail.

Jan 9, 1917

By D. P. Koistinen, K. E. Beu

THE application of the integrated intensity X-ray diffraction method to the measurement of retained austenite concentrations in hardened steels has been fully described.'-' In developing this particular method, the assumption was made that the samples used would have flat surfaces which were free from voids and in which austenite was homogeneously distributed. The original calculation procedure' was modified to include the constant factor G which relates the intensity of a given diffraction line to the concentration of the component giving rise to that line. In order to include A (0) in the constant factor G, it was further assumed that the geometrical conditions relating the X-ray beam, camera cylinder, and sample surface were precisely met.V has been demonstrated that these geometrical conditions can be met experimentally without difficulty in many cases;' however, for those samples which have irregular surfaces or where it is impossible to locate the sample in the proper position with respect to the X-ray beam and film cylinder, it is desirable to evaluate experimentally what effect these nonideal conditions have on the reliability of the austenite determination. This note decribes the results of such experiments. SAE 1095 bar stock was used throughout and all samples were heat-treated as follows: 1600°F for 1 hr in a neutral atmosphere, brine quench, and 300°F temper for 30 min. To control heat-treatment conditions as closely as possible, all samples were plated with 0.002 in. copper to protect the immediate surface from the heat-treating atmosphere. After heat treating, the samples were deplated electroly-tically so that only the copper was removed. The heat-treated surfaces thus obtained were nearly as bright and polished as the original surfaces before copper plating although no mechanical work was done on the samples after heat treating.

Jan 1, 1954

By R. Taggart, J. W. Barton, G. R. Purdy, J. G. Parr

The constitution and mechanical properties of heat-treated alloys containing up to 10 pct* Ni in Ti have been investigated. The effects of quenching and of various isothermal treatments ale described, and C-curves are presented. The production of the precipitated and the martensitic hexagonal phases on quenching is discussed. MARGOLIN, Ence, and Nielsenl have determined the titanium-nickel phase diagram. A study of the transformations in gas-quenched and tempered powder specimens was made by Polonis and Parr.' Some isothermal transformation work was carried out by Margolin and ~unshah, who determined transformation curves for 4 and 6 wt pct alloys, while Robinson et al.investigated the formation of the w phase in a quenched and tempered alloy, Margolin and Bunshah showed that while a martensitic transformation could be obtained on quench- ing thin sections of a 4 wt pct alloy, a 6 wt pct alloy precipitated a nonmartensitic phase. The present investigation was undertaken to obtain more information on the transformations in quenched, quenched and tempered, and isothermally transformed lump specimens of alloys containing up to 10 pct Ni. Isothermal transformation curves have been determined for 7 and 10 pct alloys and cooling curves have been obtained for quenched alloys containing up to 7 pct Ni. The mechanical properties of 2, 5, and 10 pct alloys were studied, with the object of relating properties to microstructures. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS Alloys containing up to 10 pct Ni were prepared from sponge titanium and spectrographic standard nickel by levitation-melting and chill-casting in a split copper mold. The 5 and 10 pet alloys were prepared from sponge Ti having an as-melted hardness of 115 Vpn. The other alloys were made from a sec-

Jan 1, 1961

By M. C. Leverett

The behavior of mixtures of immiscible liquids in porous solids is of rapidly increasing interest to those engaged in the production of petroleum. The operation of artificial water-floods and the control of natural ones immediately raise questions concerning the fundamental nature of such processes. Moreover, it is now recognized that often water occurs dispersed throughout the rock from which the oil issues into the well,' and thus tends to move toward the well simultaneously with the oil. The work reported here is a laboratory investigation of the simultaneous, steady-state flow of oil and water through the same column of uncon-solidated sand. It is thus directly related to the situation in which water occurs in oil-producing sands; it may have less direct implications for the displacement of oil from sands by water. However, it is to be clearly understood that the experiments to be described were performed primarily to obtain information of a more or less fundamental nature, and are not an attempt to reproduce, on laboratory scale, any part of an oil field. The dynamic behavior of a system in which oil and water are flowing simultaneously through sand is best described in terms of its "effective permeability" to either phase. For incompressible fluids flowing through a system of uniform cross section, the effective permeabilities to the two phases, in darcys, may be defined by the equations: Ko = PA6A [la] and Ku = Q [lb] In order to put the results obtained on a comparable basis for different sands, the effective permeabilities will be stated as fractions of the normal permeability of the sand; i.e., fractions of its permeability to a homogeneous fluid. Algebraically, these fractions are: KO' = Ko/K, and KWr = K,/X [2a] and [Zb]

Jan 1, 1939