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By Louise Barton Freeman, Iley B. Browning, Coleman D. Hunter

During 1942, production of oil in Kentucky reached a total of 4,169,163 bbl. of which 1,807,809 bbl. came from eastern Kentucky. This was more than a million barrels less than in 1941, owing partly to the low price of crude oil, which almost eliminated wildcatting, and partly to spacing regulations, which limited the number of wells drilled in small, shallow pools where the pressures are not sufficient to maintain maximum recovery in widely spaced wells. In eastern Kentucky much of the oil was produced from outliers of the Mauch Chunk series at the disconformable contact of the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian. Although wells producing from this horizon, known as the Maxon, are sprinkled over the entire area, the greatest concentrations are in Martin, Floyd, Knott and Pike Counties. A new 30 to 40-bbl. well has been completed in this formation in ,Pike County, where the carbon ratio is so high that ordinarily oil would not be expected. Pike County is one of the largest producers of Maxon gas, and the offset well to this oil well produced gas. Of the 412 gas wells drilled in Pike County, 12.2 per cent produced gas from the Maxon horizon. During 1942, the old Menifee " Cornif-erous" field, the Mariba-Denniston field, was redrilled between old wells, and although it did not produce any large amount of oil it did contribute 2018 bbl. In the oldest oil field in eastern Kentucky, the Ragland pool, operators are cleaning out abandoned wells and are using this oil for fuel oil. There is a possibility that some of this may be used in the future as distilled fuel oil. Eight wells were completed in 1942 in the Jackson County gas field. The development of Jackson County, which was started in 1934 and in which commercial quantities of gas were encountered at a depth of 1100 to 1200 ft., has become of importance in 1942 with the completion of eight wells, making a total of 24 commercial producing wells with an average rock pressure of 140 lb. At this time the gas is not being marketed. In the last year it has been found that these wells, which produce from the Niagaran dolomite ("Cornif-erous"), respond to acidizing and the production has been thus greatly increased. There has been less development in Estill and Lee Counties than for several years. Two wells were drilled in Greenup County, one of which had a show of oil in the Berea sandstone. One deep test, drilled by the Owens-Libbey-Owens Co. in Lawrence County, was dry. This well was drilled to a depth of 4975 ft. into the top of the Clinton shale sequence. Of the 202 wells completed in Floyd, Martin, Knott and Pike Counties, 187 were gas wells, 3 oil wells and 12 dry holes. In Floyd County 66 per cent of the gas production was from the Devonian-Mis-sissippian black shales, 53 per cent in Martin, 79 per cent in Knott and 65 per cent in Pike. This is probably the largest continuous gas field east of the Mississippi

Jan 1, 1943

By Iley B. Browning, Louise Barton Freeman, Coleman D. Hunter

During 1942, production of oil in Kentucky reached a total of 4,169,163 bbl. of which 1,807,809 bbl. came from eastern Kentucky. This was more than a million barrels less than in 1941, owing partly to the low price of crude oil, which almost eliminated wildcatting, and partly to spacing regulations, which limited the number of wells drilled in small, shallow pools where the pressures are not sufficient to maintain maximum recovery in widely spaced wells. In eastern Kentucky much of the oil was produced from outliers of the Mauch Chunk series at the disconformable contact of the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian. Although wells producing from this horizon, known as the Maxon, are sprinkled over the entire area, the greatest concentrations are in Martin, Floyd, Knott and Pike Counties. A new 30 to 40-bbl. well has been completed in this formation in ,Pike County, where the carbon ratio is so high that ordinarily oil would not be expected. Pike County is one of the largest producers of Maxon gas, and the offset well to this oil well produced gas. Of the 412 gas wells drilled in Pike County, 12.2 per cent produced gas from the Maxon horizon. During 1942, the old Menifee " Cornif-erous" field, the Mariba-Denniston field, was redrilled between old wells, and although it did not produce any large amount of oil it did contribute 2018 bbl. In the oldest oil field in eastern Kentucky, the Ragland pool, operators are cleaning out abandoned wells and are using this oil for fuel oil. There is a possibility that some of this may be used in the future as distilled fuel oil. Eight wells were completed in 1942 in the Jackson County gas field. The development of Jackson County, which was started in 1934 and in which commercial quantities of gas were encountered at a depth of 1100 to 1200 ft., has become of importance in 1942 with the completion of eight wells, making a total of 24 commercial producing wells with an average rock pressure of 140 lb. At this time the gas is not being marketed. In the last year it has been found that these wells, which produce from the Niagaran dolomite ("Cornif-erous"), respond to acidizing and the production has been thus greatly increased. There has been less development in Estill and Lee Counties than for several years. Two wells were drilled in Greenup County, one of which had a show of oil in the Berea sandstone. One deep test, drilled by the Owens-Libbey-Owens Co. in Lawrence County, was dry. This well was drilled to a depth of 4975 ft. into the top of the Clinton shale sequence. Of the 202 wells completed in Floyd, Martin, Knott and Pike Counties, 187 were gas wells, 3 oil wells and 12 dry holes. In Floyd County 66 per cent of the gas production was from the Devonian-Mis-sissippian black shales, 53 per cent in Martin, 79 per cent in Knott and 65 per cent in Pike. This is probably the largest continuous gas field east of the Mississippi

Jan 1, 1943

By Arch J. Alexander

Coal is produced, in commercial quantities, in thirty-five of the fifty-five counties of West Virginia. Oil and gas are produced, commercially, in forty-two counties. So, you may readily see that coal, oil and gas arc closely related as to production areas. Many of the West Virginia coal mines are studded with oil and gas wells, as drilling has been done in thirty-two of the coal bearing counties. When the drilling of oil and gas wells was placed under the regulatory control of the Department of Mines on June I, 1929, it was estimated, by the State Geological Survey, that 64,000 wells had been drilled in West Virginia and that 34,000 wells were then being operated as oil and gas producers. No records of many of these remaining 30,000 abandoned wells exist and some of them remain a standing menace to safety as our coal extraction continues. Of a total of 13,100 new wells drilled since June 1929, approximately 5200 have been drilled through coal measures. Approximately 7000 wells, which were drilled through coal measures, have been abandoned in the same period of time. Many of these wells were drilled prior to the enactment of the oil and gas laws. Prior to the enactment of the Oil and Gas Law, which established the Oil and Gas Division of thc Department of Mines in 1929, there had been several mine ex-plosions attributable to cutting into un- charted wells and the improper plugging of other wells. The most serious explosion was that of Mines No. 47 and No. 49 of the Consolidation Coal Co. in Marion Co., when one of the so-called plugged wells leaked or seeped through some 80 ft of strata to the coal bed elevation, filling the mine with gas, the gas being ignited, killing a good many men and wrecking two coal mines. Legislation, to combat well hazards to coal mines, was slow in coming. In 1928, R. M. Lambie, then Chief of the Dept. of Mines, got sufficient support from coal, oil and gas interests to get the legislature to pass our present oil and gas laws. These statutes not only protected the coal industry but went a long way toward conserving the oil and gas resources of our state. Before drilling for oil or gas on any tract of land, known to be underlaid with one or more workable seams of coal, the well operator is required to submit a map of the area showing the location of the proposed well, and to send a copy to the Dept. of Mines and a copy to the coal operator. If no objections to the location of the proposed well are made by the coal operator within ten days, a drilling permit and a number for the well are then issued and work may proceed. If, however, the location of the proposed well is objected to by the coal operator, on the grounds that the location of the well will interfere with present mine operations, projected workings, or otherwise cause a dangerous condition, the operator may file a written objection with the Dept. of Mines.

Jan 1, 1949

By Arch J. Alexander

COAL is produced, in commercial quantities, in thirty-five of the sty-five counties of West Virginia. Oil and gas are produced, commercially, in forty-two counties. So, you may readily see that coal, oil and gas are closely related as to production areas. Many of the West Virginia coal mines are studded with oil and gas wells, as drilling has been done in thirty-two of the coal bearing counties. When the drilling of oil and gas wells was placed under the regulatory control of the Department of Mines on June I, 1929, it was estimated, by the State Geological Survey, that 64,000 wells had been drilled in West Virginia and that 34,mo wells were then being operated as oil and gas producers. No records of many of these remaining 30,000 abandoned wells exist and some of them remain a standing menace to safety as our coal extraction continues. Of a total of 13,100 new wells drilled since June 1929, approximately 5,200 have been drilled through coal measures. Approximately 7,000 wells, which were drilled through coal measures, have been abandoned in the same period of time. Many of these wells were drilled prior to the enactment of the oil and gas laws. Prior to the enactment of the Oil and Gas Law, which established the Oil and Gas Division of the Department of Mines in 1929, there had been several mine explosions attributable to cutting into un- charted wells and the improper plugging of other wells. The most serious explosion was that of Mines No. 47 and No. 49 of the Consolidation Coal Co. in Marion Co., when one of the so-called plugged wells leaked or seeped through some 80 ft of strata to the coal bed elevation, filling the mine with gas, the gas being ignited, killing a good many men and wrecking two coal mines. Legislation, to combat well hazards to coal mines, was slow in coming. In 1928, R. M. Lambie, then Chief of the Dept. of Mines, got sufficient support from coal, oil and gas interests to get the legislature to pass our present oil and gas laws. These statutes not only protected the coal industry but went a long way toward conserving the oil and gas resources of our state. Before drilling for oil or gas on any tract of land, known to be underlaid with one or more workable seams of coal, the well operator is required to submit a map of the area showing the location of the proposed well, and to send a copy to the Dept. of Mines and a copy to the coal operator. If no objections to the location of the proposed well are made by the coal operator within ten days, a drilling permit and a number for the well are then issued and work may proceed. If, however, the location of the proposed well is objected to by the coal operator, on the grounds that the location of the well will interfere with present mine operations, projected workings, or other- wise Cause a dangerous condition, the operator may file a written objection with the Dept. of Mines.

Jan 1, 1948

By N. A. D. Parlee, E. M. Sacris

OVER 55 years ago, Sieverts and Hagenacker1 and Donnan and shaw2 made determinations of the solubility of oxygen in liquid silver, over a rather short range of temperatures (973° to 1125°C), using quartz bulbs, mainly at 1 atm. From the results of their investigations, Mizikar, Grace, and parlee3 plotted % O vs 1/T and obtained the following straight-line equation for solubility at 1 atm: log % O = 723.7/T - 1.0949 Recent work on the kinetics of the Ag-O2 system394 indicated there might have been some error due to reaction with the direct heated silica bulbs. Thus it became important to redetermine the solubility with the silver contained in a better refractory such as alumina, and by induction heating where the walls of the container were not so strongly heated. It was also desirable to extend the temperature range. A modified Sieverts apparatus of fairly standard type was used except that a special type of reaction tube was employed, Fig. 1. Dried argon with a guaranteed purity of 99.9 pet, and dried medical-grade oxygen with a guaranteed purity of 99.6 pet containing a little nitrogen, were the gases used. The measuring system consisted essentially of a manometer and a water-jacketed 100-cc gas buret with an open-end vertical tube parallel to the buret. This tube has the same diameter as the buret in order to give the same capillary effect on the mercury. A screw leveling device was used with the buret leveling bulb to help provide accurate pressure readings. A 2-mm ID capillary line connected the buret to the reaction chamber, helping to reduce the dead volume, which was determined with argon. The heating medium was a 2.5-kw output induction furnace. The induction coil was made of a 3/16-in. copper tubing with eight turns and an inside diameter of 4 cm. The reaction bulb was made of a quartz tube 18 cm long and 3 cm in inside diameter, Fig. 1. Inside the quartz tube were two alumina crucibles (Mor-ganite Triangle RR, XN10 and XN5) one inside the other. Below these two was an alumina disk. The disk prevented the corners of the outer crucible from expanding against the quartz tube. The solid sample (99.994 + pet Ag), which had been previously cleaned by air oxidation and repeated removal of scum, was placed inside the inner crucible. An alumina disk with a hole at the center covered the two crucibles. In order to decrease the dead volume, an evacuated quartz "filler" tube was placed on top of the crucible cover. The part of the reaction tube above the spherical joint was made up of Pyrex glass with a flat glass top. It was here that a prism was placed to facilitate the use of an optical pyrometer, previously calibrated at the freezing point of silver. This type of reaction bulb and furnace assembly was specially designed for this work, and used in preference to the relatively new water-

Jan 1, 1965

By Edward B. Hughes, Frank G. Norris

OXIDATION is characteristic of all processes for making steel from pig iron. This thought has been aptly expressed by H. W. Graham13 in the most recent Howe Memorial Lecture, "The process of steel-making consists of using iron oxide to reduce the carbon content of the pig iron to the desired level." Direct oxidation refers to the reaction that results from introducing oxygen either alone or mixed with other gases directly into the steel bath. In working a heat, oxygen in some form is added to the steel to remove the undesirable constituents as oxides. There are two general methods of supplying this oxygen to the open hearth bath. The method in which the oxygen is added as a, compound such as C02-or iron ore is designated an indirect method because the steel bath must first decompose the compound to attain oxygen in a usable form. The other method in which oxygen is added to the bath in the elemental or gaseous form, more or less diluted by other gases such as nitrogen, is a direct, method because no decomposition is necessary before the oxygen reacts with iron to form FeO which is dissolved in the bath in a usable form. Bubble formation (at least of a macroscopic size) presents no problem in case of direct oxidation because the reacting agent (oxygen) is in the form of bubbles when entering the metal. Regardless of whether oxygen is introduced into the bath directly or indirectly, several reactions proceed concurrently. In the presence of the bath of molten iron, FeO is formed either by oxidation of iron by oxygen or reduction of oxides by iron. This FeO dissolved in the molten iron is the source of oxygen for the oxidation of manganese, carbon, silicon, and phosphorus if these are present. The oxidation of carbon from steel is the controlling steelmaking reaction. The introduction of oxygen into the bath, its reaction in the elimination of impurities, and its control by the use of de-oxidizing additions have been subjects of importance since steel was first made by the bessemer process. Direct oxidation is, in a sense, an application of the bessemer principle to the open hearth process. Graham13 states: "The use of oxygen or air jets introduced into the metal bath is essentially an effort to approach in the open hearth the turbulence, rapid interface reaction, and high production rate per hour that exists in the bessemer process." The general subject, "Oxygen in Steelmaking," was given new life by the studies of Herty and associates starting about1925. The current interest in elemental oxygen is intimately related to the large scale production of oxygen developed during the war period. Some of the first applications were made during the early summer of 1946 at the Steel Co. of Canada using oxygen with the fuel. Such a use is of considerable interest and importance in contributing to faster heats but is not the subject of the present discussion which deals entirely with the introduction of elemental oxygen directly into the open hearth bath. A recent article12 reviewing the current

Jan 1, 1948

By George H. Anderson

A CHAPTER of appealing interest was added to the industrial history of the Southwest early in June, when the War Production Board gave final approval to the erection of a blast furnace, a battery of coke ovens, an ore-beneficiation plant, and other facilities for the production of pig iron in northeastern Texas, just north of the East Texas oil field. For many years the people of Texas and adjoining states have cherished the ambition and desire that eventually an iron and steel industry drawing upon local mineral resources would be established to serve Southwestern markets. The existence in this vicinity of valuable deposits of iron ore, limestone, and coking coal has been known in a general way for many years, and efforts have been made from time to time to use them in the production of iron. The present development promises to bring to realization the dreams of the men who have visualized what the establishment of this basic industry would mean to the region.

Jan 1, 1942

By F. G. ROCKWELL

ALTHOUGH the diamond as a gem stone dates back many hundreds of years its use industrially, at least to any extend is recent. The old adage: "Use a diamond to cut a diamond" indicates that some industrial use was made of this material in cutting and polishing many years ago. It also put to various other industrial by the Romans. General industrial use however was never developed to any considerable extent until about the time of the first World War. It is definiely known however, that a Swiss watchmaker, M. Leschot by name, invented a diamond drill in or about the year 1862, Today, some 75 or 80 per cent of the total didamods produced are used in industry. There are two main classifications of diamonds : (1) carbonados or "black diamonmds," and (2) diamonds proper.

Jan 1, 1944

By L. W. Casteel

St. Joseph Lead Company's Southeast Missouri mines have been successfully converted to the use of ammonium nitrate and fuel oil as a blasting agent. This is significant to the company because it means a savings of a quarter of a million dollars per year. It is significant to the mining industry because of the unusual conditions involved and the methods and materials used to overcome them. St. Joe has been mining the low grade lead deposits of southeast Missouri since 1864. This ore occurs as disseminated galena in widely scattered pockets within the Bonneterre dolomite. The daily production of 20,000 tons is obtained from several hundred small, room and pillar stopes covering an area 10 miles long and five miles wide. Distribution of explosives and other materials is a real problem. Drilling in the stopes is done with air legs, column- mounted machines or jumbos, depending on the size and location of the stope. Drill hole sizes vary from 1 3/8-in. diam down to 1 1/8-in. Each driller charges his own holes and shoots them at the end of the shift. Numerous shafts provide natural ventilation which is supplemented in isolated areas by churn drill holes equipped with blowers. Water, in most stopes, is not a serious problem, although the mines do produce about 20,000 gpm.

Jan 5, 1962

By F. B. Harris

MINE surveying and engineering at the various properties of the United States Smelting Refining and Mining Company has developed and increased in importance steadily as mining methods have changed and expanded, both in the development of ore bodies and in the methods and styles of stoping. Most important to satisfactory engineering practice, and secondary -only to accuracy and precision, is the preservation of all data relative to surveys and calculations so that it is readily available for use at all times and in -such form that it is permanent, easily found, and usable. The first consideration for a proper, accurate, and practical start for surveys and efficient engineering at any property is an accurate triangulation net and system of co-ordinates. This has been our practice and the first step seas to select a base line, readily accessible and easily measured, situated preferably on an even grade where the difference of elevation between the two -end monuments was not too great and -the distance was long enough for practical use. Permanent concrete monuments were built for these base-line points so constructed that they could be easily recognized and were visible. Precise levels were run on this base 'line and the elevation (sea level datum) if possible was established at each end monument. The distance was carefully measured many times, back and forward, by using a tape that had been standardized by the National Bureau of Standards. The tape was supported at ,each 25-ft interval on stakes which had been brought to grade between each measuring point. All conditions were

Jan 1, 1948

By L. C. Armstrong

Twice in the past two years and in two widely separated localities-one near Williamsville, Mo., and the other in the Allard Lake district of Quebec- the Contract Drilling Division of the Longyear Company has experienced perplexing difficulties in drilling granitoid igneous rocks. The rocks in both places are characterized by appreciable amounts of feldspar intimately intergrown with quartz particles of microscopic dimensions. The disappointingly slow rate of advance and the exceptionally high bortz loss, obtaining during the life of these two projects, are ascribed largely to the resistance to abrasion of these two minerals when arranged in this intergrown pattern. Whether all intergrowth-bearing igneous rocks would offer extraordinary resistance to bit progress cannot be stated with assurance on the strength of these experiences alone. More data on diamond drilling this sort of material in a number of localities are needed before any generalizations can be made safely.

Jan 1, 1949

By John H. G. Monypenny

The range of chromium content of stainless steel is, in most cases, included in the limits 11 to 14 per cent., or the middle part of the range, 9 to 16 per cent., specified by the discoverer. For some time after the steel was produced commercially, the carbon content was about 0.3 to 0.4 per cent. and occasionally higher; only rarely was material with 0.25 per cent. carbon or less produced. The reason for this is obvious from the nature of the alloys of chromium available for making such steels; as the lowest carbon content generally available was about 1 per cent., and this in conjunction with a chromium content of about 60 per cent., the production of a 12-per cent. chromium steel with less than 0.25 to 0.30 per cent. carbon was impossible. The advent, on a reasonable commercial scale, of carbonless ferrochromium has modified this condition, however, so that for the last three years stainless material containing 0.1 per cent. or less carbon and the normal amount of chromium has been on the market. As far as the author is aware, the material was first made on a commercial scale by the firm with which he is associated in June, 1920, when a 5- or 6-ton cast of material containing 0.07 per cent. carbon and 11.7 per cent. chromium was made and cast into 12-in. ingots. The necessity for using a totally different raw material, carbonless ferrochromium, instead of the ordinary low-carbon ferro (0.6 to 1.0 per cent. carbon) has led to the idea that stainless iron is a quite distinct product and quite different from stainless steel. While this may be true from a commercial aspect, it is wrong metallurgically. The name stainless iron is unfortunate as the material is a very mild stainless steel and forms the lowest carbon member of a series of steels of continuously varying content which are, in many respccts, the counterpart of the series of ordinary carbon steels ranging from "dead soft" to tool steels. In an article on stainless steel in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, November, 1920, the author said "Just as in the far-off days 'steel' was regarded as a hard product of iron, and little or no attempt was made to grade it into harder or softer varieties, so at present stainless

Jan 1, 1924

By John H. G. Monypenny

The range of chromium content of stainless steel is, in most cases, included in the limits 11 to 14 per cent., or the middle part of the range, 9 to 16 per cent., specified by the discoverer. For some time after the steel was produced commercially, the carbon content was about 0.3 to 0.4 per cent. and occasionally higher; only rarely was material with 0.25 per cent. carbon or less produced. The reason for this is obvious from the nature of the alloys of chromium available for making such steels; as the lowest carbon content generally available was about 1 per cent., and this in conjunction with a chromium content of about 60 per cent., the production of a 12-per cent. chromium steel with less than 0.25 to 0.30 per cent. carbon was impossible. The advent, on a reasonable commercial scale, of carbonless ferrochromium has modified this condition, however, so that for the last three years stainless material containing 0.1 per cent. or less carbon and the normal amount of chromium has been on the market. As far as the author is aware, the material was first made on a commercial scale by the firm with which he is associated in June, 1920, when a 5- or 6-ton cast of material containing 0.07 per cent. carbon and 11.7 per cent. chromium was made and cast into 12-in. ingots. The necessity for using a totally different raw material, carbonless ferrochromium, instead of the ordinary low-carbon ferro (0.6 to 1.0 per cent. carbon) has led to the idea that stainless iron is a quite distinct product and quite different from stainless steel. While this may be true from a commercial aspect, it is wrong metallurgically. The name stainless iron is unfortunate as the material is a very mild stainless steel and forms the lowest carbon member of a series of steels of continuously varying content which are, in many respccts, the counterpart of the series of ordinary carbon steels ranging from "dead soft" to tool steels. In an article on stainless steel in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry, November, 1920, the author said "Just as in the far-off days 'steel' was regarded as a hard product of iron, and little or no attempt was made to grade it into harder or softer varieties, so at present stainless

Jan 1, 1924

By T. M. Morris

A SEARCH of the literature reveals that no measurements have been made of the forces acting between a small solid particle whose surface is hydrophobic, and an air bubble to which the solid adheres, both immersed in water. Analyses have been made of the forces acting to support a greased solid on the surface of water, and the forces acting to cause a solid, whose surface is hydrophobic, to adhere to an air bubble in water. The latter analysis T. M. MORRIS, Junior Member AIME, is in the Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Mineral Dressing, School of Mines and Metallurgy, Rolla, Mo. New York Meeting, February 1950. TP 2734 B. Discussion of this paper (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before Feb. 28, 1950. Manuscript received May 16, 1949. This paper is the result of work done for part of a doctor's thesis at the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy. is often incomplete, however, because the internal pressure of the bubble has been neglected. It will be demonstrated that the internal gas pressure is not a negligible factor when dealing with bubbles of the size encountered in flotation. A study of the forces acting between an air bubble attached to a large flat surface is informative. It must be borne in mind, however, that this is not the condition present in a flotation cell, where the particle is small compared to the size of the bubble. The bubble is allowed to spread to its maximum contact angle on a large flat surface in the first case, whereas in the second case, the spread of the bubble is limited to the surface of the small particle which is presented to the bubble. Kabanov and Frumkinl studied the forces acting to cause adhesion of bubbles of hydrogen to a large surface of mercury, which served as an electrode in a dilute sulphuric acid solution. The force acting to hold the bubble to the mercury surface was found to be the vertical component of the surface tension between hydrogen and the sulphuric acid solution. The forces tending to cause the bubble to separate from the mercury surface were found to be: (1) the force exerted due to the internal pressure of the bubble acting upon the area of contact between the bubble and the mercury surface, and (2) the buoyant force of the bubble minus the hydrostatic force acting at the base of the bubble. These investigators photographed bubbles that were just on the verge of separating from the mercury surface. From these photographs, they measured the contact angle between the mercury surface and the tangent to the hydrogen-solution interface at the point of contact between bubble and mercury surface. They calculated the volume of the bubble and the internal pressure of the bubble. The equivalence between the upward acting and downward acting forces was remarkable. Wark2 pursued an investigation similar to that of Kabanov and Frumkin, and at the same time. His deductions verified those of Kabanov and Frumkin. He also considered the conditions present in flotation and was aware of the effect of the internal pressure of the bubble. Further, he proposed several conditions under which a small solid particle would adhere to an air bubble in water. In 1922, Edser," an English physicist, made the following statement. "It must be remembered that no particle could float stably, but for the possibility of variation of the contact angle, for if this were a constant, a slight tilt would inevitably cause the particle to sink." Wark criticized this statement, maintaining that the contact angle does not vary. The experimental data to be presented indicates that Edser was correct. Experimental Procedure: Briefly, the experimental procedure was as follows. A bubble of air was generated in distilled water. A rod of known diameter, one end of which was water repellent, was attached to this bubble. The weight of the 'rod was measured. The internal pressure of the bubble was measured with a manometer. The hydrostatic head from the surface of the water to the bottom of the rod was measured. The angle between the horizontal projection of the end of the rod and the tangent to the bubble at the circle of contact be-

Jan 1, 1951

By T. M. Morris

A SEARCH of the literature reveals that no measurements have been made of the forces acting between a small solid particle whose surface is hydrophobic, and an air bubble to which the solid adheres, both immersed in water. Analyses have been made of the forces acting to support a greased solid on the surface of water, and the forces acting to cause a solid, whose surface is hydrophobic, to adhere to an air bubble in water. The latter analysis T. M. MORRIS, Junior Member AIME, is in the Department of Metallurgical Engineering and Mineral Dressing, School of Mines and Metallurgy, Rolla, Mo. New York Meeting, February 1950. TP 2734 B. Discussion of this paper (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before Feb. 28, 1950. Manuscript received May 16, 1949. This paper is the result of work done for part of a doctor's thesis at the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy. is often incomplete, however, because the internal pressure of the bubble has been neglected. It will be demonstrated that the internal gas pressure is not a negligible factor when dealing with bubbles of the size encountered in flotation. A study of the forces acting between an air bubble attached to a large flat surface is informative. It must be borne in mind, however, that this is not the condition present in a flotation cell, where the particle is small compared to the size of the bubble. The bubble is allowed to spread to its maximum contact angle on a large flat surface in the first case, whereas in the second case, the spread of the bubble is limited to the surface of the small particle which is presented to the bubble. Kabanov and Frumkinl studied the forces acting to cause adhesion of bubbles of hydrogen to a large surface of mercury, which served as an electrode in a dilute sulphuric acid solution. The force acting to hold the bubble to the mercury surface was found to be the vertical component of the surface tension between hydrogen and the sulphuric acid solution. The forces tending to cause the bubble to separate from the mercury surface were found to be: (1) the force exerted due to the internal pressure of the bubble acting upon the area of contact between the bubble and the mercury surface, and (2) the buoyant force of the bubble minus the hydrostatic force acting at the base of the bubble. These investigators photographed bubbles that were just on the verge of separating from the mercury surface. From these photographs, they measured the contact angle between the mercury surface and the tangent to the hydrogen-solution interface at the point of contact between bubble and mercury surface. They calculated the volume of the bubble and the internal pressure of the bubble. The equivalence between the upward acting and downward acting forces was remarkable. Wark2 pursued an investigation similar to that of Kabanov and Frumkin, and at the same time. His deductions verified those of Kabanov and Frumkin. He also considered the conditions present in flotation and was aware of the effect of the internal pressure of the bubble. Further, he proposed several conditions under which a small solid particle would adhere to an air bubble in water. In 1922, Edser," an English physicist, made the following statement. "It must be remembered that no particle could float stably, but for the possibility of variation of the contact angle, for if this were a constant, a slight tilt would inevitably cause the particle to sink." Wark criticized this statement, maintaining that the contact angle does not vary. The experimental data to be presented indicates that Edser was correct. Experimental Procedure: Briefly, the experimental procedure was as follows. A bubble of air was generated in distilled water. A rod of known diameter, one end of which was water repellent, was attached to this bubble. The weight of the 'rod was measured. The internal pressure of the bubble was measured with a manometer. The hydrostatic head from the surface of the water to the bottom of the rod was measured. The angle between the horizontal projection of the end of the rod and the tangent to the bubble at the circle of contact be-

Jan 1, 1951

By J. F. Lewis

BELIEVING that one of the essential points in mining, as in all other business, is to know the expense incurred in each particular department, I have carefully kept an account with each department for the past three years; and, as it may be of interest to some of our members, I herewith present it to the Institute, reduced to percentages of the total yearly expense, showing the cost for materials, repairs, expenses, tools, team accounts, powder, oil, and fuel, also for labor under its several heads :

Jan 1, 1878

By Arthur J. Boynton

In the preparation of this paper the writer has been influenced by the fact that descriptions of various means of cleaning blast-furnace gas have been published and that further descriptive treatment of the subject will probably be less interesting than a statement of conclusions with regard to preferable methods which have been reached by him as a result of experience and observation in this country and also as a result of somewhat detailed investigation of the subject made toward the end of the year 1927 on the Continent of Europe and particularly in Germany. Owing to various circumstances, including a cost of fuel that is extremely high in relation to the wages of labor, the German iron and steel industry has accumulated experience in gas washing which is as yet in part lacking in the United States of America. The paper begins with a statement regarding the economics of the use of blast-furnace gas, then considers the principles and practices employed in its purification. Uses of Blast-furnace Gas For many reasons having to do with the utilization of coke-oven and blast-furnace gases in steel manufacture and with the use of hot metal, the blast furnace is now usually a part of a steel-producing unit, which also includes coke plant and rolling mill. Therefore both blast-furnace and coke-oven gas are usually applicable to any of the iron and steel-making processes, including the generation of power, and their allocation in any given works should be considered as a single problem. The uses to which blast-furnace gas, either alone or mixed with coke-oven gas may be put, include the following: Regenerative Heating of Ail. for the Blast Furnace.—This is the oldest and metallurgically the rnost important of all uses. It is universally performed with unmixed blast-furnace gas and under proper conditions should require not over 23.5 per cent. of the total gas generated for a blast temperature of 1350" F. For Steam-raising Purposes.—This is almost universally done with unmixed blast-furnace gas. From the standpoint of quantity used, it is at the present time the most important application in American steelworks practice.

By Arthur Knapp

NO oil territory in the world has been so rich in large producing wells, in a comparatively small area, as the Baku field. Particularly is this true of the Bibi Eibat field, which formerly produced millions of "poods " of " gusher," or as it is called in Russia, "fountain" oil. The Bibi Eibat and Balachany fields have been exhausted of gas and ruined by water, but ' the Surachany and Benegadi fields are still fountain territories and: many outlying districts that have only been prospected produce rich fountains. The method of controlling fountains, or gushers, is the result of growth, along with the Russian system of drilling, where large diameters and riveted casing have been in vogue. The screw casing is seldom used except to exclude water. Formerly the method of finishing wells and the condition of the casing at the top of the well would not permit the use of gates, manifolds, and connections as is standard elsewhere. The life of the flowing wells is very short, particularly those 10 in. (25 cm.) or more in diameter, which produce large quantities of sand and often flow for but a few days and are then a complete loss. More than 1,000,000 poods in 24 hr. have been claimed in several instances, but in no case was the flow for more than a few days. The oil sands of this district are free uncemented sands and vary in thickness from paper thin to a maximum of 10 ft. (3 m.). The sands are interlaid with strata of soft clay. In spite of this, the practice has been to drill into such sands and produce from the open hole without screen or liners. Sometimes the casing is set below the oil sand but in this case holes from 21/2 to 3 in. in diameter are drilled opposite the oil sand, which would not have the effect of a screen. Fig. 1 is an outline of the fountain shield ready for the control of a fountain. It is composed of an inner and an outer covering made from rough boards. The framework is made of rough round poles. When a light flow is expected, only the inner lining is built; and when the fountain comes in unexpectedly, it is often possible to build only the outer cover. The bridge is for the purpose of renewing the blocks as they become worn by the flow. The lower block, as here shown, is made of hardwood and is bolted to the crossbeams with brass bolts. The grain end is toward the flow. The upper block, as shown here, is made of cast steel and is also bolted to the crossbeam with brass bolts.

Jan 1, 1921

By C.F. Pascoe, H.J. Roast

The object of this investigation was to compare the arsenical antimony-lead alloy with some of the regular bearing-metal alloys. With this end in view, the following tests were made: 1. Chemical analyses to show the composition. 2. Thermal analyses. 3. Macroscopic examination of fractures. 4.Microscopic examination. 5. Tensile tests. 6. Crushing tests. 7. Scleroscope tests.' 8. Brinell tests, at temperatures from 80' to 400' F. Tests 3 to 8 were conducted on both sand-cast and chill-cast specimens. For the purposes of this paper the alloys have been numbered from 1 to 6; their composition is as follows: Lead. ' Antimony, Tin, CoppeR ARSEnic, NumBeR PeR CENT. PER CENT. PeR Cent. PeR CeNt. PeR Cent. 1 82.64 12.95 4.40 0.01 none 2 27.54 9.04 59.87 2.65 none I 3 none- 0.13 ------------1.47 4 82.95 16.85 none 0.20 none 5 83.78 15.35 none 0.05 0.82 6 0.15 7.87 . 84.13 7.85 none The analysis, in the case of the antimony, was made by solution in sul-furic acid and titrated with permanganate. For tin, the ferric-chloride method was used; for copper, the alkaline separations, and the thio-cyanate methods; for arsenic, volatilization of arsenic and titration with iodine. The lead, with the exception of alloy 6, was taken by difference. With the exception of No. 5, the alloys were taken as received from the manufacturer. About 40 lb, were melted in a graphite crucible and recast into small ingots to insure uniformity of composition; samples

Jan 1, 1923

By C. F. Pascoe, H. J. Roast

The object of this investigation was to compare the arsenical antimony-lead alloy with some of the regular bearing-metal alloys. With this end in view, the following tests were made: 1. Chemical analyses to show the composition. 2. Thermal analyses. 3. Macroscopic examination of fractures. 4.Microscopic examination. 5. Tensile tests. 6. Crushing tests. 7. Scleroscope tests.' 8. Brinell tests, at temperatures from 80' to 400' F. Tests 3 to 8 were conducted on both sand-cast and chill-cast specimens. For the purposes of this paper the alloys have been numbered from 1 to 6; their composition is as follows: Lead. ' Antimony, Tin, CoppeR ARSEnic, NumBeR PeR CENT. PER CENT. PeR Cent. PeR CeNt. PeR Cent. 1 82.64 12.95 4.40 0.01 none 2 27.54 9.04 59.87 2.65 none I 3 none- 0.13 ------------1.47 4 82.95 16.85 none 0.20 none 5 83.78 15.35 none 0.05 0.82 6 0.15 7.87 . 84.13 7.85 none The analysis, in the case of the antimony, was made by solution in sul-furic acid and titrated with permanganate. For tin, the ferric-chloride method was used; for copper, the alkaline separations, and the thio-cyanate methods; for arsenic, volatilization of arsenic and titration with iodine. The lead, with the exception of alloy 6, was taken by difference. With the exception of No. 5, the alloys were taken as received from the manufacturer. About 40 lb, were melted in a graphite crucible and recast into small ingots to insure uniformity of composition; samples

Jan 1, 1923