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The lignite deposits of the United States represent a huge potential source of fuel for power generation. It has been estimated that lignite constitutes about 24 percent of the remaining National reserves of solid fuel on a tonnage basis and about 15 percent of the reserves on a B.t.u. basis. (See sec. 3, part 1.) The major portion of these reserves is in North Dakota. Lignite has been used locally for domestic heating since the first settlers burned it at forts and fur-trading posts as early as 1855. Some of the first studies of the use of lignite in steam boilers were conducted by the Federal Bureau of Mines from 1910 to 1920 (15, 19) 1/ However, the commercial utilization of lignite as fuel for producing power developed slowly. Not until about 1925 was any really successful lignite industrial fuel-blaming equipment developed. Since then the commercial use of lignite as a fuel for producing power has been increasing steadily.

Jan 1, 1954

By R. G. Bottge

To better understand those factors which increase mining costs in Alaska, a Bureau of Mines study was conducted to compare the estimated costs of operating a 100,000-tpd open pit copper mine located on a hypothetical ore body in the Lake Clark area, Alaska, with the costs of mining a similarly sized hypothetical copper ore body near Tucson, Ariz. The information derived should be beneficial to the State and Federal governments in appraising the potential for development of large, low-grade porphyry copper deposits in south-central Alaska. Conventional mining and concentrating methods were assumed, and capital and operating costs were derived using flowsheets and standard costing methods. The total price required for copper mined in Alaska and Arizona was $1.12 and $0.63 per pound, respectively, plus or minus 20 percent. These values were obtained assuming no leaching of low-grade copper, recovery of gold, silver, and molybdenum as byproducts, 100-percent equity financing, and a 12 percent discounted cash flow rate of return. The average domestic and international prices for copper in July 1973 were $0.60 and $0.916 per pound, respectively. The existence of a developed transportation and power system in Alaska would have reduced capital and operating costs subs tantially. The required price for copper would have declined from $1.12 to $1.05 per pound, plus or minus 20 percent.

Jan 1, 1974

By G. E. McElroy, A. S. Richardson

"Experiments in the determination of friction factors for fan-pipe installations were carried on in a Butte mine during the fall and winter of 1922-23, under a cooperative agreement between the Bureau of Mines and the Anaconda Ccpper Mining Co. The results have been summarized in a separate paper,*** and this report, which is one of several giving more detailed data, discusses the methods used and the application of the results to fan-pipe practice.The use of canvas and galvanized-iron pipe, 8 to 20 inches in diameter, with small fans, usually electrically driven blowers, is an important factor in the ventilation of metal mines and is increasing in coal mines and long tunnels. In the Matte district the standard installation is an electrically driven small blower fan and 8 to 16 inch canvas pipe.The application of available data on friction losses in sheet-metal pipe to mine installations was doubtful, and very little has been published on canvas pipe, except general statements that the friction looses are greater than in galvanized-iron pipe. Experiments by Weeks and others,**** who determined friction losses under laboratory conditions for a few typical materials used in mine equipment, supported the statements.In 1918, one of the authors (Richardson) conducted tests for the Anaconda Copper Mining Cc. on the friction losses in canvas-pipe systems and the beet type of centrifugal blower for use with such pipe lines. He obtained the average total resistance per unit of length in use, without reference to the variable conditions of the lines. The results were of great value in developing more efficient equipment for average service conditions, and indicated that average friction losses for the commercial canvas tubing then used by the company were equal to or lees than these given for galvanized-iron pipe. Later on, the particular canvas tested was discarded for a heavier and more service-material."

Oct 1, 1923

By D. E. Shanks

The Bureau of Mines surveyed a variety of inorganic ion-exchange materials to determine their suitability for removing valuable accessory elements and troublesome contaminants from metallurgical process and waste streams. Most of the materials, which included molecular sieves, heteropolyacid salts, and hydrous metal oxides, did not give adequate separations, did not have the necessary stability in strong acids or bases, or were not in a physical form suitable for ion-exchange use. Many of the suitable inorganic materials, especially the hydrous oxides, were capable of cation exchange with high capacity only in basic conditions, which caused hydrolysis of most of the cations tested. Multivalent anions, such as arsenate and phosphate, were easily removed from acidic solutions by hydrous oxides. Hydrous zirconia was the best material for this purpose. Multivalent anions were not easily des orbed because of compound formation; therefore, conventional ion-exchange techniques could not be employed. As an alternative approach, hydrous ferric hydroxide was used as a filter material to remove arsenate and phosphate from acid solutions. One gram of arsenic was removed from solution for each 20 g of ferric hydroxide. Ferric hydroxide is preferable to hydrous zirconia for use as a filter material because of low cost.

Jan 1, 1983

By Dennis R. Dolinar

In general, the direction of the maximum horizontal stress in the eastern United States is fairly well defined. However, the variation of the magnitudes of the horizontal stresses is not very well understood. Because the horizontal stresses cause severe ground control problems in underground coal and limestone mines throughout the eastern United States a more complete understanding of how the magnitudes vary would be useful for developing mine design strategies to combat horizontal stress related ground control problems. Therefore, in this National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) study, the variation of the magnitude of the horizon stresses in sedimentary deposits in the eastern and Midwestern United States are examined with respect to two factors, the elastic modulus of the rock and the site depth. Stress measurements from thirty-seven sites are used in the evaluation. Examining the applied excess strains indicates that the eastern United States can be, separated into high and low strain zones. For most of the eastern United States the maximum applied excess or tectonic strain ranges from only 300 to 550 micro strains. However, there is one area, a portion of the Beckley seam in the central Appalachian region where the strains are significantly higher than the other regions. In this higher strain zone, the maximum applied tectonic strains range from 700 to 1,000 micro strains. Regression models for each zone based on the elastic modulus can explain between 83 to 85% of the variation of the maximum horizontal stress. Because one region, the northern Appalachian district, has strains that are about 20% higher than the other regions in the low strain zone, multiple strain models based on geographic regions were developed for the low strain zone that can explain 87 to 91% of the maximum horizontal stress variation with the elastic modulus. Depth was found not to be a significant causal factor in any increase in the horizontal stress even though the site depths ranged from 275 to 2,500 ft. Beyond a theoretical increase, based on Poisson’s effect and gravity, no other increase in the horizontal stress with depth can be justified with this data. The most significant factor controlling the variation of the maximum horizontal stress is the elastic modulus of the rock, not the overburden depth.

By L. C. Brichta

The Melrose zinc-lead. deposit is in an area of structural disturbance of sedimentary rocks in the Melrose mining district in Cherokee County, Kans., 25 miles west of Joplin, Mo., adjacent to the northwest limits of the Tri-State district. Mining and milling in the Melrose district has been sporadic and. very limited, largely due to the high cost of exploration through great thicknesses of barren rock, 350 to 440 feet overlying the ore deposits. No mining has ever been done on the Melrose zinc-lead tract, but it has been drilled extensively. The drill-hole logy indicate extensive structural deformation, silicification, and zinc-lead deposits in the Boone limestone-chert formations of the Mississippian series, which is overlain by thick-bedded Pennsylvanian shale and sandstone. Analyses of samples from Bureau of Mines drilling indicate the ore minerals are sphalerite and galena with no evident oxidation. During the period from November 2, 1949, to March 13, 1950, the Bureau of Mines investigated the deposit by churn drilling and sampling 23 holes aggregating 10,405 feet of bore. Factual data on the investigation and logs of holes drilled by private parties and the Bureau of Mines are presented in this report.

Jan 1, 1951

By W. E. Brown, P. R. Porath, V. Miller, C. E. Wood, C. Prasky, E. P. Barrett

"INTRODUCTION This investigation was a part at the Bureau of Mines program for the production of critical and essential materials needed for the war.The Boykin Committee for investigating the steel shortage aided in obtaining an appropriation to be expended by the Bureau of Mines in studying the utilization of North Dakota lignite in the manufacture of hydrogen that could be used in the production of sponge iron from low grade ores of Minnesota.OBJECT OF INVESTIGATIONThe investigation was conducted by the Bureau of Mines to ""determine the workability of the proposed bubble-hearth process and its possible use in connection with an experimental plant for the gasification of lignite being operated by the Coal Division of the Bureau of Mines at Grand Forks, North Dakota.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis report is one of many on various aspects of the Bureau of Mines program directed toward the more effective utilization of our mineral resources.Investigations of our mineral resources are conducted by the Mining Branch, L. B. Moon, chief, and by the Metallurgical Branch, O. C. Ralston, chief.The scope of the report falls in the province of the Metallurgical Branch, whose activities embrace the separation of difficulty beneficiated ores, the production of pure metals from domestic deposits, the exploration of marginal ore reserves, the recovery of secondary metals, and the improvement of present industrial metallurgical practice."

Jun 1, 1947

By George A. Morgan

The production and processing of crude petroleum and natural gas are the dominant economic sectors of the Middle East. Development of downstream petrochemical and fertilizer industries continues as a major investment area. In 1993, the 15 countries that constituted the region accounted for 29 % of world crude petroleum output, 19 % of world natural gas plant liquid production, and 6 % of world dry natural gas production. Only Cyprus and Lebanon were not crude petroleum producers. Regional output was up for most major mineral commodities. A major exception was phosphate rock, which declined sharply owing to reduced worldwide demand. Total crude petroleum output declined by over 100 Mbbls, again owing to slack demand in the major industrial countries.

Jan 1, 1995

By R. J. Leary

The Bureau of Mines experimental blast furnace was blown with oxygen-enriched blast in combination with natural gas injected at the tuyeres. The air blast was augmented with oxygen to form an enriched blast containing 24,8 pct oxygen, and tests were run at natural gas injection rates of 4.5, 6.0, and 8.3 pct of the air blast. Similar enrichment to 26.8 pct oxygen was tested at natural gas rates of 7.2, 9.1, and 11,0 pct of the air blast. At intermediate proportions of natural gas to oxygen, (1) the fuel rate and the replacement ratio of coke by natural gas were unaffected by oxygen injections and (2) the productivity increased about 4 pct for each I pct oxygen added to the blast. The higher proportions of natural gas to oxygen were less efficient; in return for a lower coke rate, the fuel rate increased and productivity declined. A deficiency in reducing gas imposed a limit upon lower than normal proportions of natural gas to oxygen. Beyond this limit the formation of reducing gas was insufficient to support the rate of metal production. When this condition was encountered, the coke rate requirement for specification iron was abnormally high and production fell off badly. Adiabatic flame temperature is discussed as a means for proportioning oxygen and natural gas additions.

Jan 1, 1967

By W. M. Mahan

This report describes work carried out by the Federal Bureau of Mines in cooperation with the General Services Administration (GSA). Tests on nickel oxide reduction were conducted at the Pyrometallurgical Laboratory at Pitts-burgh and Bruceton, Pa., and at a rented plant at Canonsburg, Pa. Nickel oxide was reduced to sponge nickel, which was then melted to produce specification-grade nickel ingots containing a minimum of 98.50 percent nickel plus cobalt and a maximum of 1.00 percent cobalt. One purpose of this study was to determine if specification-grade nickel could be made from nickel oxide produced at the United States-Government-owned plant at Nicaro, Cuba, in pilot-plant scale operations involving direct reduction and melting processes. A second and equally important purpose was to obtain cost data on the pilot-plant operation to estimate the cost of producing ingot nickel at an annual rate of 12 million pounds. Laboratory tests verified that nickel oxide, in saggers and in the presence of anthracite fines and dolomite in the ratio of approximately 20:5:1, could be converted to sponge nickel when heated to approximately 1,900° F. for about 2 to 4 hours, depending on the size and density of the oxide charge. The tests also determined the type of saggers suitable for pilot-plant operations.

Jan 1, 1959

By A. J. Kauffman Jr.

The Petrographic Section of the Bureau of Mines, Northwest Electrodevelopment Laboratory, Albany, Oreg., annually examines thousands of minerals and rocks. Samples are received from mining, engineers, prospectors, and government agencies, both State and Federal. During the past 2 years certain uncommon minerals have been identified in the samples submitted. Eleven occurrences have been selected for reporting in detail. These selections were made because in most cases a new locality is involved. The data reported are the result of application of the latest techniques, and widely disseminated references concerning each mineral have been added for completeness. Several occurrences have been described by other investigators; in those cases new data have been supplied to supplement the already published information on these occurrences. No uranium-bearing minerals have been included; they will be treated in another paper. The Bureau of Mines does not make chemical analyses or assays for individuals or firms In direct competition with private laboratories. Mineral¬ogical examinations, however, are made for prospectors and the general public. Such examinations a call surface to determine whether the sample in question has possible commercial value. If it has apparent value, the sender is so informed, and suggestions as to its .Arc, development and marketing are offered. The latest scientific apparatus is available to aid in identification. The apparatus includes microscopes, both wide-field and polarizing, a Bunsen-type spectroscope for visual observation of the Zinc and band spectra of many elements, differential thermal apparatus for the examination of hydrous material, apparatus for cutting and mounting either thin sections for study in transmitted or polished surfaces for reflected-light studies, and a high-intensity magnetic separator for concentrating minerals according to their magnetic susceptibility. Also, available, but not an integral part of the Section, are several laboratory-type Geiger counters, a grating spectrograph, and X-ray diffraction apparatus. If need be, all of these tools may be employed to identify a mineral or rock.

Jan 1, 1950

By M. L. Whisman

The Bureau of Mines developed and tested in the laboratory several innovative techniques for reclaiming used lubricating oil. These processes included percolation through both chemically treated clay and ion-exchange resins, distillation through batch and continuous wiped-wall vacuum apparatus, treatment with solvent extraction systems, and chemical removal of impurities with chelating agents. In each treatment, the criteria of evaluation was oil recovery and reduction of acidic and metallic components. Both vacuum distillation and solvent treatment ranked high in their abilities to remove acidic and metallic components of the used oil with good oil recoveries. A combination of the two techniques gave the best overall results in terms of quality evaluations made by established bench tests. The methods were not ranked according to economic practicablity.

Jan 1, 1974

By J. J. deBarbadillo

This Bureau of Mines report describes a process for recovering chromium and other metals from superalloy scrap. Laboratory-scale experiments were conducted to test a complex flowsheet utilizing a wide range of extractive metallurgical operations. The novel basis for the process is the fonnation of a sulfide matte in which chromium is concentrated in a discrete chromium sulfide phase. Mineral processing and hydrometallurgical procedures are used to separate chromium sulfide from the other matte constituents. The products of the process are a chromium-nickel alloy suitable for reuse in the superalloy industry, electrolytic nickel, electrolytic cobalt, and iron-molybdenum residue. Recovery of the principal elements contained in the scrap is chromium--93 percent, nickel--99 percent, cobalt--96 percent, and molybdenum--92 percent.

Jan 1, 1981

By Keith D. Rosbury

The basic objective of this project was to determine the cost-effectiveness of dust control used on unpaved mine haul roads. Field testing was conducted at three surface coal mines (two in Wyoming, one in southern Illinois) for a total of 20 weeks. The highest control efficiency measured for a chemical dust suppressant, 82 percent, was for calcium chloride two weeks after application. Generally, however, the control efficiencies hovered in the 40 to 60 per-cent range over the first two weeks since application, and then decreased with time. After the fifth week, the limited number of data points suggest a control efficiency of less than 20 percent. Composite watering data were fairly uniform. Watering once per hour resulted in a TSP control efficiency of approximately 40 percent. Doubling that application rate increased the control effectiveness by about 15 percent to 55 percent. Chemical dust suppressants (primarily salts and lignons) can be shown to be more cost-effective than watering under some conditions. Delta summaries and the analysis of data are contained in Volume I. Volume II contains basic data.

Jan 1, 1983

By E. J. Murphy, A. P. Rowles, John C. Holtz

"INTRODUCTION The use of sheaths or hollow cylinders of flame-extinctive materials surrounding cartridges of permissible explosives has been developed during the last few years; the history of sheathed explosives in their salient development in Belgium was treated recently in a publication of the Bureau of Mines. 6/ This development is of great interest in explosives technology, for it holds possibilities of reducing further the ignition hazards that may cause many coal-mine disasters. The township interest in sheathed explosives in this country is attested by the passage of some State laws permitting the use of such explosives on shift 7/; inquiries are received in increasing numbers concerning the effects of sheaths on practical hazards as well as the general technology underlying their use."

May 1, 1943

A compilation of papers presented at the Third WVU Conference on Coal Mine Electrotechnology in Morgantown, West Virginia, on August 4-6, 1976. Papers cover areas of electric power, electronic communications, detection and location of trapped miners, and electronic sensors and monitoring systems.

Jan 1, 1976

By Frank J. Wiebelt, Spangler Ricker

"INTRODUCTION Bauxite, in Appalachian Alabama, occurs in the Rock Run and Goshen Valley districts in Cherokee County; in Nences Creek Valley near Jacksonville; near Anniston in Calhoun County; north of Fort Payne in DeKalb County; near Ashville in St. Clair County; and near Talladega in Talladega County.In February 1942, Preston E. Cloud, Jr., assistant geologist, Federal Geological Survey, began a study of these bauxite deposits and the geology relating thereto.The Bureau of Mines established field headquarters at Piedmont, Calhoun County, in July 1942. Mineral agreements covering a total of 11,097 acres were executed with 15 landowners in the Rock Run district; 38 in the Goshen Valley district, covering 7,575.5 acres; and 3 in the Nances Creek Valley district, covering 988.5 acres. Drilling was done on.the properties of 9 land¬owners in the Rock Run district, and on the property of 1 landowner each in the Goshen Valley and the Nances Creek districts. Drilling began October 26, 1942, and ceased on May 17, 1943.Power drilling was supplemented by a labor crew that drilled hand-auger holes in shallow deposits and sampled .old shafts, mines, and mine dumps.In all, 222 holes for a total of 13,250 feet were drilled. Of these toles, 88 penetrated bauxite but too low in grade to constitute ore."

Mar 1, 1948

By H. B. Brunot, Ilsley. L. C., E. J. Gleim

"INTRODUCTION One of the various phases of the work by the U.S. Bureau of Mines, in its endeavors to minimize the hazards that attend coal mining, is the investigation of electrical motor-driven machinery. The object of this investigation is to foster the development of explosion-proof machines for use in gassy mines. This investigation is conducted under the provisions of Schedule 2C, which prescribes the inspection and tests made upon motors, controllers, and other electrical parts to determine their ability to withstand internal explosion without discharge of any flames. The method of conducting these inspections and tests is described in Bureau of Mines Bulletin 305, Inspection and Testing of Mine-Type Electrical Equipment for Permissibility, published in 1929. Formal approval of a machine for use in gassy mines is not granted by the Bureau of Mines until the machine is found to comply with the requirements, including inspection and test. When it is approved it is entitled to classification as a ""permissible"" machine.The high regard in which machines approved by the U.S. Bureau of Mines are held by engineers of other countries is attested by the growing number of shipments of permissible equipment; to other nations, including Australia, Russia, Norway, Japan, and Manchuria."

Aug 1, 1936

By W. M. Bangert, F. S. Boericke

"INTRODUCTION Determination of the thermodynamic properties of metallurgically important compounds of chromium has been one of the activities of the Pacific Experiment Station of the Bureau of Mines. Earlier reports have dealt with the entropies 4/ 5/ of chromium, chromic oxide, and chromous and chromic chlorides, with the thermodynamic properties of the chlorides of chromium, 6/ and wits the thermodynamic properties of the carbides and oxide of chromium. 7/ Evaluation of the thermodynamic properties of chromite, FeO.Cr2O3, is desirable, as this material in impure form constitutes the only natural source of chromium of any consequence.Two general methods are available for directly determining heats of formation - (1) measurement of heats of combustion and (2) measurement of heats of solution. Neither of these methods is directly applicable at present to ferrous chromite, which accounts for the lack of previous data. Combustion of a stoichiometrical mixture of iron and chromium under conditions prevailing in a calorimetric bomb yields a mixture of iron and chromium oxides rather than chromite. None of the usual calorimetric solution media dissolve chromite at temperatures low enough for solution calorimetry. Sulfuric acid and an oxidizing agent, such as MnO2 or CrO3, are known to dissolve chromite, but the possible calorimetric use of t is medium would require long preliminary investigation. Consequently, recourse must be taken to some indirect method. At the start of the present work, the most promising method appeared to be the determination of equilibria in the selective, reduction of the iron in chromite by hydrogen;"

Jun 1, 1945

By Max J. Spendlove

The Federal Bureau of Mines has been a leader in resource recovery research since it was founded in 1910. Until the early 19601s, most of the projects were concerned primarily with the task of extending and improving conventional technology oriented to secondary metals and minerals upgrading and processing for marketable products of highest value. By the mid-1960's with the passage of the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965, all resource recovery research programs were increased in scope and intensity as an effort to solve the growing number of environmental problems and the rapid depletion of domestic energy and mineral resources. Many new materials were investigated including urban refuse, manufacturing, industrial wastes, and stockyard wastes. The objective was to promote maximum recycling as the most practical answer to problems of waste disposal, pollution control, and the short supply of minerals and energy. The new research projects ranged from the conversion of animal manure and other organics to oil, to the recovery of precious and common metals from demolished aircraft and electronic scrap. This profile includes brief descriptions of many selected research projects that typify, the total spectrum of Bureau of Mines research in the important field of resource recovery.

Jan 1, 1977