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By E. C. Skinner

Cardox, which consists essentially of a steel tube containing carbon dioxide compressed to the liquid state, is a trade name designating a device used principally in coal mines to break down coal. The use of Cardox to break down coal was developed in the Middle Western coal fields around 1927 or 1928. At first, a large, heavy tube was used, requiring many parts. Through experimentation and technologic improvement, the weight of the tube has been brought down from 88 lb. to 20 lb. and the new, light tube makes use of larger volumes of CO2 at lower pressures than formerly was thought possible. This blasting method is extensively used today in coal mines and probably one tenth of the bituminous coal produced in the United States is prepared with Cardox. Construction and Application As used in the coal mine, Cardox looks like a piece of steel pipe 2 to 3 in. in diameter and 3 to 5 ft. long. When it is necessary to fire a shot, the tube is wired with two leg wires that are long enough so that when the tube is pushed the desired distance into the hole the wires will protrude 5 to 6 in. It has been found that No. 18 insulated copper annunciator wire is the best material for leg wires. A two-conductor rubber-covered shot-firing cable of sufficient length is then attached to the leg wires. A 2 to 6-volt current is applied, either by means of shot-firing batteries or the standard type of shot-firing generator. Upon the application of the current, the charge in the cartridge is set off. Because the breaking action upon the coal is supplied by the relatively slow physical expansion of the carbon dioxide gas rather than by the rapid chemical formation of gases as in more familiar explosives, the result is a slow heaving action, somewhat similar to that produced by black powder, rather than a shap detonating effect. Permissible powder does its work at roughly ten times the pressures in use with Cardox. The escaped gas from a Cardox shot apparently works along the planes of weakness in the coal face, such as the coal cleats, the edges of the cut, and along the top of the seam, breaking off the coal toward the free faces and heaving the mass of coal outward. Cardox tubes are manufactured in various sizes to take care of variable conditions of seam size, undercut depth, cleatage, coal hardness, and so forth. The tubes range in diameter from 2 to 3 in. (Table I) and the normal CO2 charge is from 24 to 96 oz. For any one tube size, several sizes of shear disks are available, thus excellent control of the type of shooting desired is possible. In general, local experience and experimentation dictate the size of tube chosen for any particular job. For high coal, and deeper or wider cuts, a larger size is chosen to start with, and the opposite is true for low coal, softer coal, or small cuts. After the tube size has been experimentally selected, tests are run in the mine to determine how many shot holes are needed and where the holes should be placed. The size of the disk,

Jan 1, 1944

By Frederick V. Lawrence

Broadly speaking, fluxes are substances which promote wetting and spreading or enhance the fluidity and manipulative properties of materials in joining, fusion, and smelting operations. The term most strictly applies to substances used to facilitate soldering and brazing; but in the discussion which follows, the definition will be broadened to include materials used to promote fusion in arc welding and which aid in the smelting of metals. In each of the mentioned applications, the role of flux and its composition differs considerably; consequently in the discussion which follows, fluxes for soldering, brazing, arc welding, and smelting applications will be considered separately. Soldering and Brazing Fluxes Soldering and brazing are metallurgical joining processes in which a joint is formed using a filler metal of composition dissimilar to that of the joined pieces (base metal). The filler metal, solder or braze, is always of lower melting point than the base metal. Consequently with these processes there is no melting of the base metal. The successful creation of the joint depends upon the wetting and spreading of the solder or braze around or throughout the joint. The obstacles to successful soldering and brazing are contaminants and tenacious oxide films on the metal surfaces. In soldering and brazing applications, fluxes act to remove and exclude oxides and other impurities from the joint. There is no fundamental difference between soldering and brazing. The distinction between them is made on the basis of temperature. Join¬ing operations carried out at temperatures above 500° C are termed brazing. The higher temperatures used in brazing enable higher melting point filler metals to be used which generally provide stronger joints. The higher temperatures of brazing processes also require fluxes which are substantially different from those used in soldering and which will remain effective at high temperatures. Consequently the distinction between soldering and brazing can also be made on the basis of the fluxes used. Soldering Fluxes Even thoroughly cleaned and degreased, metal surfaces still possess tenacious oxide films which inhibit the soldering of the joint. The reactions which form these films increase with increasing temperature. The rate of oxide formation and the tenacity of the film varies with each base metal. Aluminum, magnesium, stainless and high alloy steels, aluminum and silicon bronzes when exposed to air form hard, adherent oxide films. These metals require highly active and corrosive fluxes to remove and prevent the reformation of oxide films during soldering. Metals such as copper and silver, on the contrary, form less tenacious films at a lower rate, so that mild fluxes are sufficient. Soldering fluxes must dissolve or remove oxides and promote rapid wetting and spreading of the solder. The flux removes the oxide film by loosening and floating it off into the main body of the flux. The oxide removal is often aided by the alloying of the solder with the base metal, undermining small areas of the oxide and detaching them (Anon., 1959). The flux coagulates and suspends the oxide particles which have been loosened. The flux forms a protective cover preventing the reformation of the oxides, permitting the spreading of the solder and the formation of a metallic bond between the solder and the base metal. Constituents of Soldering Fluxes: Soldering fluxes are commonly grouped into three categories: highly corrosive, intermediate, and noncorrosive. One normally would choose to use the least corrosive flux which will give satisfactory performance.

Jan 1, 1983

By E. B. Burwell, R. H. Nesbitt

Designed by army engineers, the NX borehole camera provides the most economical method of subsurface exploration so far devised. Continuous cylindrical color photographs now reveal minor flaws in foundation bedrock not always disclosed by borehole samples. A unique projector transforms the photographs into true-to-scale images of three dimensions. ANEW milestone in the progress of photography and subsurface exploration was reached when the Chief of Army Engineers announced the development of the NX borehole camera. In obtaining continuous undistorted cylindrical color pictures of dry or water-filled borings the device surpasses all other cameras designed for photographing interior surfaces of pipes, wells, and conduits. The usefulness of the camera and the unique projector that comes with it are at once apparent. To the geological, mining, and civil engineer alike it signifies the end of guesswork with respect to underground conditions that have eluded identification by conventional core-drilling methods. To the medical profession it may well signal new progress in photo optics which could result in cylindrical color photographs supplementing the X-ray and existing photographic methods used in exploratory surgery. The pilot model of the camera has more than paid for itself as a result of its success in bringing to the surface at two dams information previously obtainable only by costly drilling of mansized boreholes for subsurface on-the-spot examination. Such bores cost as much as $200 per lineal foot as against $10 per ft for the conventional 3-in. or NX exploratory core borings from which the present invention derives its name. The NX camera can now photograph completely the interior surface of these borings. Research and development for the first camera and projection equipment were conducted by Engineering Research Associates, Division of Remington Rand, Inc., under the technical supervision of the Geology and Geophysics Branch, Office of the Chief of Army Engineers in Washington, in accordance with plans and specifications furnished by this branch. Subsequent modifications of the camera-lowering device, transporting equipment, and special field tools were made in the Corps of Engineers' Ohio River Division Laboratories in Cincinnati. The background of this development is interesting. Among the more difficult foundation problems involved in construction of concrete dams are those resulting from bedrock imperfections that escape disclosure by conventional exploration methods. Often these imperfections are of sufficient magnitude to introduce costly changes, especially when their presence is discovered only after foundation excavation is well in progress. Bedrock flaws most frequently camouflaged may be ruptures resulting from the enormous stresses to which rocks have been subjected, or they may be planes or zones of weakness related to chemical alteration and underground erosion. Obviously, detailed information on their location, dimensions, and structure is important, as these factors can affect the stability of a dam and the security of life and property downstream. Their discovery and appraisal entail extensive subsurface exploration. At present the most economical exploratory tool available to geologists and engineers is the small-diameter diamond core drill by means of which cores of the foundation bedrock are recovered for examination and testing. All too often, however, these samples fail to disclose minor foundation flaws that may be of major importance before a structure is completed. As a result, the small-diameter drillings are supplemented generally by more reliable but much more costly shafts, tunnels, or large-diameter calyx drill holes that permit the investigator to examine the foundation rocks in place. It was to reduce the number and cost of these expensive and time-consuming investigations, as well as to obtain more complete information on rock structure from the smaller borings, that the NX borehole camera was developed. That it has been eminently satisfactory in accomplishing that purpose is demonstrated by its success most recently at the Folsom dam, under construction on the American River, 23

Jan 1, 1955

By Simon D. Strauss

COPPER In terms of mining activity, copper is the leading nonferrous metal. It is true that in recent years the volume of aluminum consumption in the non-Communist world has exceeded the volume of copper consumption, but virtually the entire primary aluminum supply is derived from bauxite. On the average, only four tons of bauxite need be mined to produce a ton of aluminum. By contrast, the highest-grade, large-scale copper mines now in operation (those in the Congo) must mine at least 20 tons of ore to produce a ton of copper. In the United States an average of 150 tons of ore must be mined to produce a ton of copper. This does not take into account the huge amounts of waste overburden that must be stripped from the open-pit mines to account for their steadily rising share of the world's copper output. Copper epitomizes the economic problems of the mining industry in many ways. Its price is highly volatile, considering its great economic importance. It has been a tool of mankind longer than any other of the base metals-the dawn of history has been classified as "The Bronze Age." World Copper Production Although copper is mined in many countries, in recent years 70% of the non-Communist world production has come from six countries. Two of these are industrialized countries and are large consumers-United States and Canada. The other four are developing countries with very small domestic requirements-Chile, Zambia, Zaire, and Peru. Heavily dependent on copper exports to sustain their domestic economies, these countries find themselves oscillating between prosperity and depression with the changing levels of copper prices. In an effort to control their own destiny, in 1968 they formed an organization of copper exporting countries (CIPEC) which was designed to study copper markets and possibly to intervene actively in these markets. (When this chapter was being prepared, no actual steps along such lines had been taken.) Many of the leading industrialized nations are wholly dependent on imports for their primary copper supplies. These include West Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and many others. Japan, now the non-Communist world's second largest copper consumer, produces only 10 to 15% of its requirements from domestic mines. Although the bulk of the copper output is smelted in the country where it is mined, there is a limited international trade in copper concentrates. Canada, the Philippines, Australia, and Papua-New Guinea are significant exporters of copper concentrates; Japan, Germany, the United States, and Sweden are importers. However, this trade accounted for only about 10% of the non-Communist world production of copper during the decade of the 1960s.

Jan 1, 1976

By G. M. Gordon, J. W. Spretnak, R. Speiser

AT present, considerable research is being directed toward the development of high-temperature, oxidation-resistant columbium alloys. Columbium. along with molybdenum and tungsten, exhibits good high-temperature strength. Unlike molybdenum and tungsten. however. columbium does not form a volatig oxide below 1375°c.l Although the outermost oxide formed on pure columbium, Cb2O3 is stable in air at elevated temperatures, it is not of a protective nature. It is porous and voluminous, and

Jan 1, 1959

By H. A. Hoffman

Competition from an all-flotation plant, with demonstrated economies and efficiencies, plus a change in smelting contract and introduction of improved cyclones lead to conversion from gravity-flotation. Detailed descriptions are given of equipment installed and procedures used at St. Joseph Lead's Federal mill. Future plans include further quality control by instrumentation in all aspects of the mill operation. Also planned are improvements in materials handling systems. Competitive conditions will continue to dictate improvements and changes in the mill flowsheet. The advent of all-flotation mills in the Lead Belt was introduced by the Indian Creek mill in late 1953. This modern and efficient plant then became a pattern for the other mills in this area to re-evaluate their circuits in an effort to develop flowsheets that would improve operating conditions and metallurgy. The Indian Creek mill demonstrated that all-flotation would require considerably less operating and maintenance labor than the combination of tabling and flotation that was common in the Lead Belt at that time. Two significant changes occurred in recent years to allow all-flotation to be seriously considered in other Lead Belt mills. One was a change in the smelting contract which did not require gravity concentrate. Another was the development of cyclones which provided classification of the flotation feed in a very small space. Since the Federal mill was the largest concentrating plant in the Lead Belt it was felt that the greatest savings could be made by investigating the all-flotation possibilities at this mill. Interest was stimulated by the milling and ore dressing Depts. to determine if this mill would be converted without undue cost, provided the metallurgy could be improved. Accordingly, laboratory tests were initiated to learn what metallurgical benefit could be derived. Numerous tests were run which indicated that grinding to all-flotation would improve the tailing by as much as 0.02 pct Pb. This was quite significant when multiplied by the tonnage of ore treated. Projecting the added cost of power for extra grinding and flotation, and the additional flotation reagents required, plus additional new equipment that would have to be purchased, it would still add up to a considerable saving. The all-flotation mill would reduce man power by some 30 pct, and make a metallurgical improvement. Operating costs could be reduced bv 2$ per ton. The metallurgical improvement would amount to 4$ per ton, for a total of 6$ per ton of ore milled. An estimate of the cost of the conversion was set at $250,000. With the savings as estimated this could be paid off in about two years. On paper it therefore seemed attractive enough to justify a mill test. MILL TESTING One section of the Federal mill was made available for use as a separate test circuit. Cyclones and density controllers were borrowed from the Viburnum and Indian Creek mills. Denver flotation cells were obtained from the Desloge mill that was then shut down. Two 10-cell groups of Fagergren flotation machines, consisting of eight roughers and two cleaners in each bank, were segregated from the remainder of the plant. The 9x12-ft rod mill was continued as a primary grinding mill. The two 6%x12-ft mills on this section were converted from rods to balls, and the speed increased to 22.0 rpm. Cyclones were installed to close the circuit of these ball mills. The ground pulp from each of the ball mills was fed separately to its own bank of flotation cells so that two completely separated test circuits could be run in parallel. This test circuit operated on a three-shift basis from Dec. 22, 1959 to Mar. 21, 1960. The first few weeks were occupied in developing conditions for proper metallurgy and trouble-free operations. Results were rather erratic but as the ore dressing laboratory and the mill operators became more familiar with conditions they were able to obtain expected results, which could be duplicated day after day. The last five weeks of testing indicated the best results and are tabulated in Table I. During the first two weeks a Denver unit cell was used on No. 1 flotation circuit. Even though it recovered almost one half of

Jan 1, 1962

By H. S. Wang, Y. P. Gupta

Diffusion of zinc and germanium in liquid silver is measured in the temperature range 975" to 1400°C by use of the capillary-reservoir technique. The ex-perinzental results are discussed in terms of the fluctuation and the "hole" theories of liquid diffusion, assunzing the solute as a point charge equal to the difference in the valences of the solute and solvent atoms. The additional coulombic interaction term due to the excess solute charge is evaluated in terms of the Thomas-Fenni approximation. The theoretical and experimental results agree with both the fluctuation and "hole" theories of liquid diffusion. No perceptible effect on solute diffusion in liquid silver of the size difference between the solute and solvent atoms/ions is apparent. DIFFUSION in liquid silver of electropositive solutes indium, tin, antimony, and homovalent gold has been previously reported by Leak and Swalin1 and Gupta,' respectively. These solutes have nearly the same atomic size but differ principally from one another in excess valence (+2, +3, +4, respectively). The observed differences in the temperature dependence and the rate of solute diffusion were explained in terms of an added coulombic interaction between the solute and the solvent atoms. In the case of diffusion of gold in liquid silver, the data were found to be consistent with an effective valence for gold of -0.85, as proposed by Le Claire.3 Recently, Wang and Gupta4 have reported a study of diffusion of ruthenium, iron, and cobalt in liquid silver. The results of diffusion of these solutes and their temperature dependence were found consistent with the hole theories and the fluctuation theories of liquid diffusion, if ruthenium, iron, and cobalt were diffusing in liquid silver with relative valences -2, -1.3, and -0.5, respectively, instead of -3, -3, and -2 as suggested by the relative position of these elements in the Periodic Table of Elements. Furthermore, the predicted valences for these solutes were observed to be consistent with the sparsely available information on the magnetic properties of some of the dilute alloys of copper and silver with these solutes. In theoretical calculations of solute diffusivity, the solute was assumed as a point excess charge equal to the difference in the valences of the solute and solvent atoms. Both the assumption of a point excess solute charge and the use of the Thomas-Fermi approximation to calculate the potential of a solute charge are less precise for the case of electronegative solutes. Therefore, it was not possible to infer from the data on ruthenium, iron, and cobalt an effect, if any, on solute diffusion of the relative differences in either the Period or the size of the solute and solvent atoms or the solute atoms themselves. A study of the diffusion of Period 4 elements, specifically zinc and germanium was, therefore, undertaken since zinc and germanium, respectively, have relative valences of +1 and +3 in liquid silver and the data obtained on diffusion of these solutes could be compared with the available data on diffusion of Period 5 electropositive solutes, indium, tin, and antimony in liquid silver. From such a comparison, it was hoped to learn something about the effect, if any, of the ion size or the structure of the ion core on impurity diffusion in liquid silver. EXPERIMENT The diffusion of tracer zinc and germanium in liquid silver was studied by the capillary reservoir technique, modified adequately for use at high temperatures. In principle, capillaries containing liquid silver

Jan 1, 1970

By S. A. Falconer

One of the outstanding achievements in connection with this country's war efforts has been the ability of our mining industry to supply from domestic sources many of the minerals of strategic importance that formerly were obtained principally from abroad. In order to meet the war-born demands for these scarce minerals, it has frequently been necessary to develop special methods for treating ores and waste products hitherto considered too lowgrade to be workable; and to improve the efficiency of older beneficiation processes. Important in this respect have been the recent technological advances in the field of froth flotation of nonsulphide minerals. Because of the refractory nature of many of these domestic ores, and, in many cases, the limited available technical data regarding their treatment, much research work has been necessary. The following examples describe the procedures and reagents used, and the results obtained, in certain laboratory flotation investigations conducted by American Cyanamid Company's engineers at the Cyanamid Ore Dressing Laboratory on ores containing such minerals as scheelite, manganese oxides and carbonate, ilmen-ite, brookite, kyanite, garnet, spodumene, mica, feldspar, celestite, fluorite, chromite, corundum, and cassiterite. In presenting these data, we wish to point out that many of the minerals listed have previously been tested, and their amenability to flotation reported, by other investigators—notably those of the United States Bureau of Mines. In some instances the procedures and reagents used in the treatment of some of the following described ores follow rather well-established lines, and with one or two exceptions, the reagents used were well known. However, many of the ores tested did not respond well to simple conventional procedures and it was necessary to adopt special methods of conditioning and desliming, reversal of the usual order of floatability of some of the minerals, multiple cleaning, etc., in order to secure separations. Except where otherwise noted, all numbered and trade-marked reagents mentioned in this paper are marketed by the American Cyanamid Co. or the American Cyanamid and Chemical Corporation. Tungsten ORes Tungsten minerals, vitally important in the war industries of the United States, rank high in the list of those we formerly had to import in order to supply our needs. Most of our domestic ores of tungsten contain scheelite as the valuable mineral. Today there are in the neighborhood of twelve tungsten operations in this country where flotation is used as the main or accessory form of benefication. It has, of Course, been known for some time that scheelite and other tungsten minerals respond to treatment by flotation.

Jan 1, 1947

By S. A. Falconer

One of the outstanding achievements in connection with this country's war efforts has been the ability of our mining industry to supply from domestic sources many of the minerals of strategic importance that formerly were obtained principally from abroad. In order to meet the war-born demands for these scarce minerals, it has frequently been necessary to develop special methods for treating ores and waste products hitherto considered too lowgrade to be workable; and to improve the efficiency of older beneficiation processes. Important in this respect have been the recent technological advances in the field of froth flotation of nonsulphide minerals. Because of the refractory nature of many of these domestic ores, and, in many cases, the limited available technical data regarding their treatment, much research work has been necessary. The following examples describe the procedures and reagents used, and the results obtained, in certain laboratory flotation investigations conducted by American Cyanamid Company's engineers at the Cyanamid Ore Dressing Laboratory on ores containing such minerals as scheelite, manganese oxides and carbonate, ilmen-ite, brookite, kyanite, garnet, spodumene, mica, feldspar, celestite, fluorite, chromite, corundum, and cassiterite. In presenting these data, we wish to point out that many of the minerals listed have previously been tested, and their amenability to flotation reported, by other investigators—notably those of the United States Bureau of Mines. In some instances the procedures and reagents used in the treatment of some of the following described ores follow rather well-established lines, and with one or two exceptions, the reagents used were well known. However, many of the ores tested did not respond well to simple conventional procedures and it was necessary to adopt special methods of conditioning and desliming, reversal of the usual order of floatability of some of the minerals, multiple cleaning, etc., in order to secure separations. Except where otherwise noted, all numbered and trade-marked reagents mentioned in this paper are marketed by the American Cyanamid Co. or the American Cyanamid and Chemical Corporation. Tungsten ORes Tungsten minerals, vitally important in the war industries of the United States, rank high in the list of those we formerly had to import in order to supply our needs. Most of our domestic ores of tungsten contain scheelite as the valuable mineral. Today there are in the neighborhood of twelve tungsten operations in this country where flotation is used as the main or accessory form of benefication. It has, of Course, been known for some time that scheelite and other tungsten minerals respond to treatment by flotation.

Jan 1, 1947

By Pol Duwez, Spencer R. Baen

A LTHOUGH the practical importance of Fe-Cr--iV Mo alloys has long been recognized, constitution studies have been limited to a few alloys within rather narrow ranges of composition. The purpose of the present study was to establish the phase boundaries in the ternary diagram at a temperature of 1200°F (650°C).* The identification of phases and the determination of phase boundaries were based primarily on X-ray diffraction measurements and occasionally on microscopic observation. The methods used for locating the phase boundaries were essentially those described in detail by Andersen and Jette,' and by others.', The compositions of 180 alloys, prepared by powder metallurgy techniques, are shown in Fig. 1. The chemical analysis and mesh size of the powders which were used for the preparation of the alloys are given in Table I. The powders were mixed for 48 hr or longer, then compacted under 80,000 psi in a %-in. diam steel die. Each specimen weighed approximately 5 g. The compacts were sintered for 4 hr at 2500°F (1371°C) in an atmosphere of pure dry hydrogen (dew point near the temperature of liquid nitrogen). An open tray of chromium powder was placed upstream of the compacts to act as a "getter" for the last traces of oxygen or water vapor. In many cases this chromium powder was bright after sintering. Occasionally the upstream side of the powder was slightly greenish, but in all cases the downstream side was metallic. Some of the alloys contracted during sintering and some expanded as much as 20 pct. The latter alloys, which in all cases were brittle, were crushed in a tool steel mortar, repressed, and resintered for 4 hr at 2500°F. After sintering, the alloys were aged for ten days at 1200°F (650°C) in evacuated (105 mm Hg or better) fused silica tubes and were cooled rapidly to room temperature following the aging treatment. The use of the powder metallurgy technique in preparing alloys for structural investigation offers a simple method 'of avoiding contamination or non-homogeniety which could result from a melting operation. It is very often possible to dispense with chemical analysis of the alloys which have been prepared by the powder metallurgy method. In lieu of chemical analysis, it is necessary to determine the weight of the compact before and after sintering. The chemical composition of the alloy may be considered as that of the green compact, within the limits of accuracy determined by the loss of weight during sintering. In phase-diagram studies it is important to achieve homogeniety in structure, whether the alloys are prepared by powder metallurgy or by melting. Homogeniety means complete diffusion during the sintering of the alloys which are prepared by powder metallurgy. It has been found from experience that the best criterion for establishing the completeness of diffusion is the sharpness of the X-ray diffraction patterns. This criterion has been used throughout the present study. The X-ray diffraction data were obtained using powder cameras of either 214.86 or 71.62 mm diam. Copper, cobalt, or chromium Ka. radiation was used, the choice being based on the alloy composition. The powder samples were obtained by filing or crushing, depending on whether the alloy was ductile or brittle. In some cases, the powder was annealed for 4 to 6 hr at 1200°F in vacuum. The measurements were corrected for film shrinkage and absorption. The large camera, in which the film is mounted

Jan 1, 1952

By A. Yoshikawa, T. Sugeno

To detenmine the origin of the sharp fatigue limit in many ferrous metals, S-N curvces were determined in push-pull fatigue at 18.6 kc per sec at room temperature and - 67°C for various kinds of iron. These differed in carbon and nitrogen content and grain size (25 and 2500 grains per sq mm). Sharp knees appeared in the S-N curves of fine-grained specimens with high interstitial content at both temperatures. In coarse-gruined specimens, knees were not sharp .regardless of the interstitial content and the testing temperature. It is concluded from these results that the controlling factov for the appeavance of the sharp fatigue limit is not strain aging but grain size. It has already been mentioned that iron and some iron alloys show fatigue curves characterized by a more or less sharp knee and a fatigue limit.' Explanations of the origin of this characteristic behavior of fatigue in iron appear to fall into two broad classes. One is concerned with interstitial impurities through the aging or locking effect and the other is based on intrinsic plastic properties of iron. Levy and sinclair2 and Lipsit and Horne3 have suggested that the fatigue limit observed generally in iron and steel is due to interstitial solute aging during the course of fatigue. On the other hand, Thompson and wadsworthl have suggested that the fatigue limit may be analogous to the sharp yield point, in the sense that alternating stresses above the fatigue limit are necessary to break down the dislocation locking. However, there are some experimental results which cast doubt on the general validity of these suppositions.4-8 Ferro and Montalenti' have recently suggested that the typical form of the fatigue curve of iron seems to come from an intrinsic plastic characteristic of the iron structure. This suggestion is based on the experimental result that pure iron containing an insufficient amount of interstitial solute to alldw appreciable strain-aging effects still showed a fatigue limit at room temperature. Although systematic investigations on the effect of grain size are scarce, it is thought that this effect is important in relation to the sharp fatigue limit. In fact, sensible differences were observed by Oates and Wilson4 in fatigue behaviors of a low-carbon steel depending on grain size. Ideally, the fatigue limit will be defined as the upper limit of stress amplitudes at which the life is infinite. This ideal fatigue limit can never be determined because of the limited time available for experiments, and moreover scattered data points often leave the construction of S-N curves somewhat arbitrary. And, it is usually stated that a material has a fatigue limit when its statistical S-N curve becomes apparently parallel to the N axis with a more or less sharp knee. The meaning of the fatigue limit and the sharp knee will be discussed in detail in relation to the construction of S-N curves. The origin of this sharp knee was investigated by determining S-N curves of iron for various interstitial contents, testing temperatures, and grain sizes. EXPERTMENTAL PROCEDURE The material as received was a commercial-grade low-carbon steel in the form of 4-mm-diameter rods with the following composition in weight percent: C, 0.09; Si, 0.017; Mn, 0.43; P, 0.006; S, 0.012; Cu, 0.11. Five different groups of specimens were tested. The grain sizes and interstitial contents in each group are given in Table I. The specimens of group C-02 were decarburized by annealing for 100 hr at 700°C, followed by an additional 100 hr at 850°C in wet hydrogen. Specimens of groups N-2 and N-9 nitrided in a mixed atmosphere of ammonia and hydrogen after an initial treatment identical to group C-02. The specimens of group C-9 were prepared in a manner similar to those of group C-02, except heat treatment was carried out in a vacuum. After polishing their surface with emery paper, the specimens of all groups were given a final anneal for 30 min at 930°C and air-cooled in an evacuated quartz tube. For group C*-9 this

Jan 1, 1965

By Bayard Morrow

THE copper-bearing ores concentrated at the Anaconda plant of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. are principally a mixture of copper and iron sulfides associated in a gangue consisting of quartz, lightly altered granite and feldspars, with sphalerite and galena and more rarely barite and hubnerite as accessory minerals. The predominant sulfide is pyrite. The copper minerals present are: chalcocite, bornite (Erubescite), enargite, chalcopyrite, covellite, tetrahedrite and some tennantite. Normal concentrator practice removes a slime prior to ball-mill grinding. The deslimed ore is ground to approximately 10 per cent plus 65 mesh for flotation. Two selective flotation circuits are used, one for deslimed ore and one for slime. The metallurgical results obtained are shown in Table 1.

Jan 1, 1933

By G. W. Brownell, H. T. F. Lundberg, R. W. Pringle, K. I. Roulston

The rapid improvement of the airborne scintillometer and the perfection of its efficiency for counting low energy gamma radiation has made it possible to work out a technique to map in great detail the radiation pattern at the earth's surface. On such maps low radiation over certain areas appears to indicate the existence of oil accumulations, forming a pattern similar to that obtained by the geochemists.

Jan 12, 1953

By Haydn H. Murray

Although alumina constitutes about 15% of the earth's crust, it is expensive to separate and purify for the production of aluminum with the exception of the alumina in bauxite. The United States has a variety of nonbazurite resources that could substitute for bauxite, including high alumina clays, alunite, dawsonite in oil shale, anorthosite, and nepheline venite. Each of these resources is discussed from the standpoint of geology, geography, processing, and potential recovery. Potential byproducts include alica from clays, potash and sulfuric acid from alunite, soda ash from dawsonite, and soda ash and potash from anorthosite and nepheline syenite.

Jan 1, 1983

US 4,183,899 - Flow process for chlorinating ilmenite. A laminar flow of a mixture of ore, a carbonaceous reductant, and chlorine gas or other chlorinating agent is passed through a reaction zone maintained at a temperature of 1350 to 1950°C and a product stream Including titanium tetrachloride is withdrawn from the zone. The atomic ratio of carbon to oxygen in the feed mixture is greater than 1:1, and the molar ratio of chlorine to titanium solids In the product stream is between about 0 5.1 and 2:l. Titanium chlorides and metallic iron are recovered separately from the product stream. J.P. Bonsack, assigned to SCM Corp, Jan. 15, 1980 21 pp. (423-79). Filed. 3-10-78 (885,442).

Jan 1, 1982

By T. F. Adams, D. P. Morse

Tunneling is primarily an excavating cycle consisting of a sequence of operations: drilling, shooting, ventilating, mucking, and erecting supports, if necessary. However, the type and condition of the ground that is being worked, as well as the size and shape of the tunnel, determine the rate of advance. In addition developments in drilling, ventilation, mucking, and haulage equipment have contributed to faster tunneling. Geology: This discussion will be limited primarily to rock tunnels or those which require the use of explosives, and the cost and hazards depend primarily on the condition of the rock which may be broken, decomposed, and contain water with gas. Advance geological study is an important part of any tunnel work and helps to minimize serious miscalculations. The geology itself, at best, is a matter of experience and prediction and it is not so much a matter of the types of rock the tunnel may go through, but a knowledge of the class and intensity of the rock defects that may be encountered.

Jan 4, 1958

By Earle J. Klohn

Mining operations have been carried out in British Columbia since the time of the first settlers in the area. The early developments were mainly small volume, high-grade operations, producing small quantities of tailings wastes. In these early days the nearest stream was a logical first choice for tailings disposal. Where streams suitable for accepting the tailings were not available or where streams crossing the International Border could not be used for this purpose, the nearest convenient land site was selected for storing the tailings. Old tailings waste piles exist at many locations in the Province and are readily evident, for example, in the Princeton and Hedley areas. Figs. 1 and 2 are photographs showing the present condition of two of these old tailings dams. [ ]

Jan 1, 1972

By Sam Tour

Some years ago, the writer described heat checks or thermal cracks that occur in die-casting dies.' The life of dies was considered in relation to. the casting temperature, the material used for the die and the heat to be absorbed by the die per unit volume of casting made. The mechanism of the action that results in thermal failure of dies was described. In the present paper the writer proposes to describe some additional observations in regard to heat checking, make one or two suggestions as to the method or methods for further attack of the problem, and give the results obtained on some work carried out along these lines. Importance of Heat Checking Heat checks in steel are the source of trouble in many industries besides that of die casting. Every shop where metals are subjected to hot working is searching for improvement and hoping for a cure. The development of a material of sufficient strength to be used as a die and yet devoid of the property of heat checking would be a godsend to many shops and many industries. The need for thorough study and research on the subject is evidenced by the wide variety of hot-working die steels on the market. It is peculiar, but true, that in practically every case the maker of the steel can give concrete evidence to prove his contention that his type of hot-working die steel is as good as or better than any other. A number of steel companies have several hot-working die steels from which choice can be made to fit a particular set of requirements. Possibly to expect one material to be universally the best hot-working die steel is unreasonable. In some hot-working operations, as in drop forging, the die must have great toughness to withstand the stresses developed; in other operations, as in hot piercing or punching, resistance to erosion at high temperatures, possibly defined as strength and hardness at elevated temperatures, is required. In still others, as in die casting, only sufficient hardness to resist scoring between moving surfaces is required, whereas the resistance to sudden changes in temperature must be at a maximum.

Jan 1, 1935

By Sam Tour

Some years ago, the writer described heat checks or thermal cracks that occur in die-casting dies.' The life of dies was considered in relation to. the casting temperature, the material used for the die and the heat to be absorbed by the die per unit volume of casting made. The mechanism of the action that results in thermal failure of dies was described. In the present paper the writer proposes to describe some additional observations in regard to heat checking, make one or two suggestions as to the method or methods for further attack of the problem, and give the results obtained on some work carried out along these lines. Importance of Heat Checking Heat checks in steel are the source of trouble in many industries besides that of die casting. Every shop where metals are subjected to hot working is searching for improvement and hoping for a cure. The development of a material of sufficient strength to be used as a die and yet devoid of the property of heat checking would be a godsend to many shops and many industries. The need for thorough study and research on the subject is evidenced by the wide variety of hot-working die steels on the market. It is peculiar, but true, that in practically every case the maker of the steel can give concrete evidence to prove his contention that his type of hot-working die steel is as good as or better than any other. A number of steel companies have several hot-working die steels from which choice can be made to fit a particular set of requirements. Possibly to expect one material to be universally the best hot-working die steel is unreasonable. In some hot-working operations, as in drop forging, the die must have great toughness to withstand the stresses developed; in other operations, as in hot piercing or punching, resistance to erosion at high temperatures, possibly defined as strength and hardness at elevated temperatures, is required. In still others, as in die casting, only sufficient hardness to resist scoring between moving surfaces is required, whereas the resistance to sudden changes in temperature must be at a maximum.

Jan 1, 1935

By William P. Blake

The phenomena of concentric arrangement of minerals in rock-masses, generally known as " orbicular structure," have of late received much attention from investigators. Lawson, of the University of California,' has described the orbicular gabbro at Dehesa, San Diego county, Cal. Kessler and Hamilton, of Stanford University, working independently upon the same subject, published their descriptions,2 giving also a list of many other localities in Europe and America where orbicular rocks are found, adding copious references to the literature of the subject.

Jan 1, 1906