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By OTTO HERRES

TITANIUM is estimated to be the ninth most plentiful element, ranking after iron, aluminum, and magnesium, and ahead of copper, lead, and zinc. Vast quantities of titanium are widespread throughout the world in ore deposits and beach sands. Before the war, processing plants were operated in England, France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Norway, Russia, Australia, United States, and Japan. In spite of its widespread occurrence, however, the U. S. Department of Justice has held the titanium industry to be a world monopoly and action was taken in the Federal court during the summer of 1945 to enjoin international patent and marketing agreements and to restore free competition. Possibly the rather surprising lack of public familiarity with this industry of international importance arises from its astonishingly rapid development and growth in the strong hands of some of the greatest chemical companies in the world, including the important foreign companies, Imperial Chemical Industries (British), Montecatini (Italian), I. G. Farben (German), and Titan Kogko Kabushiki Kaisha (Japanese). The rapid growth of the titanium industry in the United States is indicated by a tenfold increase of ore imports in the 1930 to 1940 decade before the war began to affect shipments from overseas. The fact that the industry formerly derived practically all ore for chemical processing in American plants from foreign sources probably also accounts for lack of general public knowledge of titanium. In 1939, to meet the requirements of increasing demand for the white pigment. titanium dioxide, more than 250,000 tons of titanium concentrates moved to this country, principally from the Travancore coast of India where the ilmenite concentrate from the beach sand runs as high as 60 per cent in titanium dioxide. Global warfare put a stop to shipping and thus gave rise to the development of titanium mining on a substantial scale in the United States during 1941.

Jan 1, 1946

By William R. Rumbold

THE Kinta valley in the State of Perak, one of the largest of the Federated Malay States, is probably at the present time the richest alluvial tin-district in the world, Perak producing from 20,000 to 25,000 tons of tin annually, and the Kiuta valley being the chief producer. The valley runs approximately north and south, and is 30 miles long by 12 wide. It is very flat, the mountain-ranges on either side rising abruptly from the plain, that on the east being the great Central range of the peninsula, and that on the west a subsidiary range marked " Kledang " on the map, Fig. 1. The valley is drained by the Kinta river, which rises in the eastern mountain range and flows south to join the Perak river, being joined by numerous streams from both mountain-ranges. The rain-fall is heavy, averaging annually about 90 in. The whole country is covered with dense jungle, except where it has been cleared for mining-operations and a small amount of cultivation. Mining villages are scattered throughout the valley, the chief towns being Kampar, Batu Gajah, Lahat and Ipoh, the latter being the center of the mining-operations. An ideal section of the main geological features of the Kinta valley is given in Fig. 2. The valley is composed of a highly crystalline limestone, usually white in color, sometimes gray; in fact, it may be called marble. It is always highly inclined and often contorted, and in some places is interbedded with shale. On the east side of the valley, near its contact with the granite, it forms a remarkable series of limestone cliffs, which rise in some cases as high as 2,000 ft. above the level of the limestone in the valley. It is non-fossiliferous, and its geo-

Sep 1, 1906

By ALFRED T. BARR

In certain areas of the New Cornelia pit, considerable secondary blasting is necessary to reduce oversized boulders, formed from primary blasting, to pieces which will pass the 41/2-cu yd dippers on the shovels. Some of the boulders are 'dobied, but when time permits they are blockholed and blasted. In most instances one hole drilled to a depth of 2 to 3 ft and blasted with 1/3 to 1/2 of a stick of powder will break a boulder satisfactorily. Blockholing is normally done by using a jackhammer of the 55-lb class, 1-in. round drill steel, and detachable steel bits, 2-in. gauge when new. A bit change is usually made after the completion of each hole. The use of light drilling equipment in blockholing is desirable, both from the standpoint of safety and ease of doing the work, and when it was seen there was a possibility of using a lighter jackhammer through the use of tungsten-carbide bits and at the same time get at least the same drilling efficiency as with the standard equipment, it was decided to test tungsten-carbide bits. The claims for long life of the bits and footage drilled before resharpening gave hopes of eliminating much of the delay time in changing bits which is unavoidable with the use of steel bits. and thus gain in actual drilling time.

Jan 1, 1949

By Tomek Ulatowski

INTRODUCTION In 1974, Industrial Miners Mexico, S.A. (IMMSA), agent for the borrowers, was the largest privately-held mining, smelting, and refining company in Mexico (accounting for 32% of Mexico's nonferrous metal and coal production in 1974), the fourth largest company in terms of sales, and the second most profitable company in Mexico, excluding government wholly-owned and operated industries. The company was engaged in the mining, smelting and refining of coal, copper, fluorite, gold, lead, silver, zinc and related by-products for domestic consumption and export. A combination of favorable factors led IMMSA to propose an investment plan amounting to US$286 million for 1974 through 1978, of which US$150 million was to be financed. These factors included: Substantial profits in 1973 and 1974 Positive near-term outlook for metal prices Success of the reinvestment program in increasing productivity Substantial additions to proved reserves during 1973-1974 and Fiscal incentives provided by the Mexican government to stimulate investment in the mining industry. The primary purpose of the investment program was to construct a new electrolytic zinc refinery and to expand and modernize many of the company's existing mining and refining facilities. THE BORROWER Company History Compania Miners Mexico, S.A. was incorporated in the city of Monterrey in 1918 as a wholly-owned subsidery of ASARCO Inc. (formerly American Smelting and Refining Company, New York) for the purpose of mining and processing non-ferrous metals and related products. In compliance with the Government's Mexicanization program, ASARCO Inc. divested itself of 51% of its equity in Compania Miners Asarco, S.A. on June 30, 1965. Subsequently, ownership in the divested share was apportioned as follows: 15% ownership in Compania Miners Asarco, S.A. to a group of private investors, and 36% in trust for subsequent public sale. The company's name was changed to Asarco Mexicana, S.A. in 1965. Mexican ownership in Asarco Mexicans, S.A. was increased to 51% in 1967, following the purchase of the 36% share ownership held in trust, and then to 66% in 1974 when ASARCO Inc. divested itself of an additional 15% of its holdings in Asarco Mexicans, S.A. Following its 1974 divestiture of 15% of Asarco Mexicans, S.A., ASARCO Inc's ownership in Asarco Mexicana, S.A. was reduced to 34%. In 1974, the company changed its name for the second time to Industrial Miners Mexico, S.A. (IMMSA). Fiscal Agreement IMMSA entered into a fiscal agreement with the Mexican government in 1969. The agreement, which was renewed in 1974, provided for 100% of the production and export tax corresponding to the federal government with a minimum of 50% of the amount refunded to be reinvested in fixed assets. Further, the agreement permitted the company to

Jan 1, 1985

By Frank Firmstone

In the summer of 1842 my father, William Firmstone, was engaged by Charles Jackson, Jr., of Boston, to examine the conditions in the Lehigh valley as a site for blast-furnaces using anthracite for fuel. In consequence of his report, he was further engaged by Mr. Jackson to build a furnace for him and his partners on the Lehigh canal, 2 miles above the mouth of the river at Easton. Work was begun in the fall of 1842, and the first furnace blown-in in 1844. The history of the works, therefore, from 1844 to 1887, when my own connection with them ceased, covers only four years less than the whole period of the rise, culmination, and commencement of the decline in the smelting of iron with anthracite in America, the beginning of which, in a commercial sense, may be put in 1839.' Although this paper, as the title indicates, is concerned almost exclusively with the furnaces at Glendon, still what was done there was more or less influenced by current opinion in the district, and even reflects, to some extent, the changes in opinion and practice with mineral fuel the world over. No. 1 Furnace was built of red brick, on four piers, had three tuyeres and fore-hearth and tymp, as was universal with furnaces using mineral fuel until the introduction of Lurmann's cinder-tuyere. The dimensions and profile are shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The first hearth (Fig. 1) was of sandstone; all after were of fire-brick (Fig. 2). The profile was no doubt derived directly from Gibbons's furnace,2 for it appears from W. Firmstone's note-books that in October, 1840, he visited " Gibbons' new furnaces building at Corbyn Hall," and I have an old drawing,

Jan 1, 1910

By J. H. East, E. R. Maize

INTRODUCTION PROBABLY no other type of equipment is now being introduced into American underground mines about which less is known and about which there is more misinformation than the Diesel mine locomotive. Any equipment installed underground brings with it hazards that were not present before, and it is the purpose of this paper to show that Diesel-powered equipment can be used with safety in underground mining if certain feasible but very important precautions are taken. Diesel locomotives are not new in underground mining, since they have been used successfully in European mines for at least 19 years, but their use in American mines is exceedingly limited; so far as is known, only five Diesel mine locomotives are operating at present in United States mines. Diesel locomotives were permitted underground in Great Britain for the first time in 1939, and the rapid increase in the number in use in those mines, testifies to their safety and efficiency. More than 1300 Diesel mine locomotives are in use in European mines, according to the latest statistics; these locomotives are employed in coal, iron, lead-zinc and mercury mines. So far as is known, the Diesel mine locomotive has not yet caused an explosion or mine fire, and has not been the cause of any fatalities from toxic gases in the mines in which it has been used. ADJUSTMENTS OF DIESEL ENGINES FOR UNDERGROUND USE A Diesel engine adjusted to work in an underground mine should not be confused with the same engine adjusted for use outside the mine. Adjustment of the air:fuel ratio for engines that are used on the surface is intended to give the maximum fuel economy, and little or no attention is given to the chemical composition of the exhaust gas produced. Many such engines are poorly adjusted and perhaps poorly maintained, with the result that the engine emits smoke in quantity as well as the disagreeable odor familiarly associated with Diesel engines. The air:fuel ratio in the case of Diesel engines operated on the surface is generally around 15:1; that is, 15 lb of air to burn 1 lb of fuel. Diesel engines adjusted to work underground usually have an air:fuel ratio of about 20:I, as at this ratio the minimum quantity of toxic gases is given off in the engine exhaust. Diesel engines operated underground must be maintained in better condition than similar engines used on the surface; otherwise, the smoke emitted in the exhaust becomes objectionable if not unendurable. Practically normal air is required for safe operation of Diesel engines underground or in confined places; failure to provide virtually normal air for Diesel engine operation is almost certain to result in trouble. Bureau of Mines engineers have determined that the air in which a Diesel operates in confined places should contain less than 1/2 pct of carbon dioxide and at least 20 pct of

Jan 1, 1947

By AIME AIME

DESTRUCTION of the plants, machines, utilities, tools, materials, and other essentials for peacetime living penalizes not only the owners of the materials destroyed, but the world as a whole. Specifically, the fundamental fallacy of any proposal for the in- discriminate destruction of the German industrial system is that it fails to differentiate between the wartime and the peacetime economy of the Reich. We are for one simple, clear objective-an effective industrial means to keep Germany from starting another war. This objective should not be con- fused, especially before the war is even won, with the appropriate punishment of Germany or with the international arrangements for the long future to be made around the peace table by the representatives of the Allied Nations after victory is achieved. This paper, therefore, does not deal with broad, complex postwar questions of diplomacy and international policy. "Unconditional surrender" implies disarmament of the German armies, the surrender of all arms, munitions, air- planes, and other ordnance material in stock piles or in process. It also should include the elimination of all German war production facilities, such as ordnance plants, munitions plants, and submarine works, and the control of raw materials required by war industries.

Jan 1, 1944

By John V. Beall

BROMO Seltzer blue has gone to war. The blue of the Bromo Seltzer bottle is a product of cobalt, the Nation's No. 1 strategic metal. When the National Production Authority, on Nov. 21, 1950, ordered a 70 pct cutback in domestic use of cobalt, a stab of pain was felt in the hearts of the glass, porcelain enamel, steel, paint, pottery, and electrical and electronic equipment industries. The reason: A full-scale wartime economy with astronomical requirements for jet engines, high velocity projectiles, armor plate, electronic equipment, and the many products needed to win a war. There is little potential comfort for cobalt users in nonessential manufacturing, and the military will be pinched for optimum supplies of the metal. However, if proper measures are taken immediately and current plans are completed, in two years there will be far more cobalt available than ever before. When normal times return, cobalt supplies should be sufficient to meet peacetime military requirements, and greatly expanded domestic requirements that will result from new technological development for wartime but adaptable to peacetime products. The pres-

Jan 1, 1951

By AIME AIME

THREE of the addresses presented at this interesting and important session are printed in full else- where in this issue. The fourth, Mr. Hewett's paper, on "Cycles In Metal Production" has been issued as Technical Publication 183, and an abstract of it was published on page 162 of last month's issue. The general discussion that followed these four important papers is given in full below. S. A. TAYLOR: I would like to ask Mr. Veasey whether the control of oil in pools includes royalties, and, if so, in case of a new pool how are you going to control, or rather how are you going to describe the limits of that pool?

Jan 1, 1929

Abadilla, Quirico A. Catanawan, Tayabas, P I '20 Abbey, Robert Graham, District Mgr., The W. W. Sly Mfg. Co, 50 Church St, New York, N. Y. '21 Abbott,-A. N., Mines Supt, Mazapil Copper Co., Ltd .. Concepcion del Oro, Zac., Mexico. '23 Abbott, Clarence E., Mgr, Mines & Quarries, Tenn. Coal, Iron & R R Co. 1242 Brown Marx Bldg, Birmingham, Ala. '04 Abbott, Louis Benjamin, Chief Engr, Consolidation Coal Co, Elkhorn Div . Jenkins, Ky. '15 Abeel, George H., Jr., Cons Min Engr... . Box 427, Santa Monica, Cal. '18 Abel, Albert E., Asst. to Pres., Valley Mould & Iron Corp Hubbard, Ohio. '19 Abel, Raymond L., Asst. Prof., Dept. of Pet. Refin , Univ. of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, Pa. '28 Abernathy, George Elmer, Prof. of Geol. & Min., Kansas State Teachers College. Pittsburg, Kans '20 ||Abernethy, D. Carl, Jr. Min. Engr., Hudson Coal Co . Scranton, Pa '27 Abey, Hiroshi, Min. & Met. Engr., Min. & Met. Dept, The Higher Technical School, Osaka, Japan. '17 Aborn, Robert H., Instructor in Met, Harvard University Cambridge, Mass. '19 Abozeid, Mahmood, Pet. Production Engr., Marland Oil Co Ponca City, Okla. '20 Abraham, Arthur W., Geol, Richfield Oil Co. Box 788, Bakeisfield, Cal. '20 Abraham, W. E. V., Member, Geol Staff of Burmah Oil Co, Ltd Nyaunghla. Upper Burma, India. '23

Jan 1, 1923

[†Aaronson, Alfred E., Oil Producer, Pres., Tuloma Oil Cc Tulsa, Okla. '18 ¦Abad, Leopoldo F., College of Min., Univ. of California Berkeley, Cal. '23 ¦Abadilla, Quirico A., Geol. Dept., Cia. Mexicans de Petroleo "EI Aguila," S. A., Edifico "El Aguila," Esq., Calles Aurora y Comercio, Tampico, Tamps., Mexico. '20 ¦Abbey, Robert Graham, Student, Case School of Applied Science Cleveland, 0. '21 Abbott, Clarence E., Gen'l Supt., Iron Mines Div., Tenn. Coal, Iron & R. R. Co., 1405 Minnesota Ave., Bessemer, Ala. '04] [ ]

Jan 1, 1925

By Jay A. Carpenter

THIS preliminary report from the Committee to Study Relations Between Students and the Institute is submitted to our member- ship for consideration and discussion before the general subject comes up for action at the Annual Meeting in February. At present, the A. I. M. E. has a dual relationship with mining students, each relationship in no may connected with the other. To the individual student the Institute offers for $2 a year a Student Associateship in the Institute which carries with it a subscription to MINING AND METAL- 'LURGY, a watch fob, and the privilege of becoming a Junior Member after graduation without payment of the -first year's dues, if one's application is accepted. To the student's college society it offers the privilege, upon application, of becoming 'an Affiliated 'Society, which brings with it no specific supervision or aid, and in turn requires no specific conditions as to membership, fees, or rules. This Affiliated Society is distinctly a school organization which Student Associateship in the Institute can he given special status or ignored, is the local .society sees fit.

Jan 1, 1934

Jan 1, 1913

By Michael Tenenbaum

The importance of semikilled steel as a high tonnage grade has long been recognized. The increasing severity of the applications for which semikilled steel is used makes it desirable to obtain further information regarding the features of open hearth practice and ingot structure that can affect steel performance in subsequent rolling and fabricating operations. Accordingly, an investigation is being carried out studying the structure of various types of semikilled steel ingots. This paper reviews some of the observations made and information gathered in this investigation. By definition, semikilled steel may be considered to include all nonrimming steels in which the natural shrinkage occurring during ingot solidification is offset to an appreciable degree by gas formation. Accordingly, this type of steel includes the entire range intermediate between rimmed and fully killed steel. The resultant ingot structures range from those of steels that have been capped to suppress a weak rimming action to those steels that have been killed in the furnace or ladle to the extent that no mold deoxidizer is required. A survey reported to the 1946 -AIME Open Hearth Conference' reviewed the practices being used at 28 major plants for the deoxidation of semikilled steel. It was found that most plants divide the deoxidizing additions between the ladle and the mold—many of the plants adding only minor amounts of deoxidizer to the bath or none at all. Silicon, aluminum and titanium were the only elements used for ladle and mold deoxidation. Mold deoxidizers were added as capping additions or as uniformly fed additions. Several practices were reported in which the steel was deoxidized in the ladle to the extent that little or no mold deoxidation was needed. No reference was made to grades capped by using special mold designs or special closures over the top of molds. .Accordingly, specific examples of this type of practice will not be considered in this paper. It appeared from this survey of deoxidation practice that semikilled steel can be divided into three types, namely, capped semikilled, in which aluminum is added near the end of pour or after shut-off, intermediate semikilled steels, in which aluminum is fed uniformly throughout the pour, and semikilled steels requiring no mold deoxidation. In an attempt to cover the ingot structures obtained by the range of practices reported in the preceding survey, three series of experimental heats were made using increasing amounts of aluminum, silicon and titanium for ladle deoxidizers. The ladle deoxidizers were added as stick aluminum, 50 pct ferrosilicon and 20 pct ferrotitanium (4 pct carbon), respectively. Two methods of studying ingot structures were used. Ingots were removed from production, burned longitudinally and machined to allow observation of the central pipe and coarse blowholes. During the machining operation much of the finely porous subsurface structure was obliterated. Accordingly, observations were also made

Jan 1, 1949

By Michael Tenenbaum

The importance of semikilled steel as a high tonnage grade has long been recognized. The increasing severity of the applications for which semikilled steel is used makes it desirable to obtain further information regarding the features of open hearth practice and ingot structure that can affect steel performance in subsequent rolling and fabricating operations. Accordingly, an investigation is being carried out studying the structure of various types of semikilled steel ingots. This paper reviews some of the observations made and information gathered in this investigation. By definition, semikilled steel may be considered to include all nonrimming steels in which the natural shrinkage occurring during ingot solidification is offset to an appreciable degree by gas formation. Accordingly, this type of steel includes the entire range intermediate between rimmed and fully killed steel. The resultant ingot structures range from those of steels that have been capped to suppress a weak rimming action to those steels that have been killed in the furnace or ladle to the extent that no mold deoxidizer is required. A survey reported to the 1946 -AIME Open Hearth Conference' reviewed the practices being used at 28 major plants for the deoxidation of semikilled steel. It was found that most plants divide the deoxidizing additions between the ladle and the mold—many of the plants adding only minor amounts of deoxidizer to the bath or none at all. Silicon, aluminum and titanium were the only elements used for ladle and mold deoxidation. Mold deoxidizers were added as capping additions or as uniformly fed additions. Several practices were reported in which the steel was deoxidized in the ladle to the extent that little or no mold deoxidation was needed. No reference was made to grades capped by using special mold designs or special closures over the top of molds. .Accordingly, specific examples of this type of practice will not be considered in this paper. It appeared from this survey of deoxidation practice that semikilled steel can be divided into three types, namely, capped semikilled, in which aluminum is added near the end of pour or after shut-off, intermediate semikilled steels, in which aluminum is fed uniformly throughout the pour, and semikilled steels requiring no mold deoxidation. In an attempt to cover the ingot structures obtained by the range of practices reported in the preceding survey, three series of experimental heats were made using increasing amounts of aluminum, silicon and titanium for ladle deoxidizers. The ladle deoxidizers were added as stick aluminum, 50 pct ferrosilicon and 20 pct ferrotitanium (4 pct carbon), respectively. Two methods of studying ingot structures were used. Ingots were removed from production, burned longitudinally and machined to allow observation of the central pipe and coarse blowholes. During the machining operation much of the finely porous subsurface structure was obliterated. Accordingly, observations were also made

Jan 1, 1949

By B. D. Saklatwalla

FOR the proper understanding of the inclusion of certain elements in this review it seems necessary to state the meaning of "rare metals." Certain elements occur in deposits limited in extent or concentration, so that the extraction of the element in relation to market conditions becomes uneconomical. Others may occur in extensive and rich deposits but the reduction of the metal may be difficult and costly. Both these conditions effect the same result, namely, make the metal rare and costly. As an example of the first kind may be mentioned radium and of the second, calcium.

Jan 1, 1939

Jan 2, 1976

Coal production during 1963 amounted to 446 mil- lion tons, an anticipated increase of about 6% over the 1962 production of 422 million tons. Electric consumption was 207 million tons, a continuation of its upward trend with an increase of about 7%. The metallurgical market consumed 77 million tons: the industrial market, 96 million tons; and the retail market, 26 million tons. Exports were 46 million tons. Modernization continues in the coal industry as it approaches the mid-1960's. The industry has shown a keen desire to explore and pursue new developments, new concepts and new managerial methods and techniques that have become so vital and important for industrial well-being.

Jan 2, 1964

By AIME AIME

ARRANGEMENTS for the Annual Meeting of the Institute were well advanced at the end of December as the following program will show. Heretofore this has been printed separately, but its inclusion in the Annual Review issue of MINING AND METALLURGY will, it is hoped, make it more easily available for reference until the final program is issued, which will be distributed at the meeting. Added details will appear in the February issue. Last year's meeting drew a record crowd of over 2300 which should be exceeded this year. Early reservations at the headquarters hotel, the Waldorf-Astoria, or any other convenient hotel are desirable, as are prompt reservations for the Annual Dinner. No one need worry about too much speechmaking this year, for the honors will be awarded and accepted in a few words instead of a few paragraphs, in seconds rather than minutes.

Jan 1, 1939

By Walter Loel

THE application of aerial photographs to all phases of geologic mapping is set forth, indicating the advantages to be gained in different types of country and under varying climatic conditions. Methods of field and office procedure are given from a geological point of view, as well as suggestions regarding the best methods of aerial mapping for different uses and under varying field conditions, including the study of submarine geology. Aerial photographs with accompanying geologic maps are shown to illustrate the appearance from the air of different geologic features under varying climatic and topographic conditions.

Jan 1, 1938