Search Documents

By A. D. Schwope, L. R. Jackson, A. M. Hall

In the course of an extensive investigation of the comparative properties of several types of copper, data were obtained on the cold working and subsequent recovery and recrystallization of the copper. In this paper, relations between the degree of cold work and the course of re-crystallization are developed. In particular, it is shown that the course of recrystallization over long periods of time and at low temperatures can be predicted with reasonable accuracy from short-time high-temperature recrystallization data. Materials Used in The Investigation Three types of copper were used in this investigation; these were tough pitch, OFHC, and OFHC copper with 15 oz per ton of silver added identified herein as Lots C, D, and F, respectively. The material was supplied by the American Metal Co. Ltd., and processed by the Rome Cable Co. The analyses of the three types of copper are given in Table I. Originally, it started as wire bars 4 X 4 X 54 in. These bars were heated to 871° C in air and hot rolled to % in. rod. This rod was cold drawn to 0.204 in. rod (70 pct reduction) in three passes and annealed at 427°C for 4 hr. A portion of the 3/8 in. rod was saved for more detailed cold-drawing experiments. Starting with the annealed 0.204 in. rod, hard-drawn wires were produced by cold drawing to 0.081 in. wire in 7 passes (84.4 pct reduction in area). Half-hard wires were made by cold drawing the 0.204 in. rod to 0.102 in. wire, (75 pet reduction) in 6 passes and annealing at 427'C for 4 hr. This annealed wire was then drawn to 0.081 in. wire, (37.1 pet reduction) in 2 passes. Square rod was made by hot rolling wire bars to Re in. rod in 8 passes. This rod was then cold drawn to 0.445 in.-diam rod and annealed for 346 hr at 538°C. It was then cold drawn to 0.325 in. rod and again annealed at 538°Cf or 3 1/2 hr Hard square rods were then made by cold rolling this material to 0.257 X 0.257 in. rod, a reduction in area of 20.5 pct. Half-hard square rods were made by cold rolling to 0.268 x 0.268 in. square, annealing for 3 1/4 hr at 538°C and cold rolling to 0.257 x 0.257 in., a reduction of 8.5 pct. Soft wire or rod was made from all types of copper by annealing the hard-drawn material at 343°C for 3 hr in steam. The grain size of the annealed 0.081 in. wire varied slightly among the three lots: from o.o15+.oz5 mm in the silver-bearing OFHC to 0.035-0.045 mm in the OFHC copper. The annealed 0.257 in. wires were more uniform in grain size, averaging about 0.035-0.045 mm. Representative structures are shown in Fig I. Effect of Cold Drawing and Tensile Strain on Strength of Copper Conventional tensile tests were performed on the three types of copper in the various degrees of hardness described above. Results of these tests are tabulated in Table 2. The results in Table 2 are 6

Jan 1, 1949

By Charles H. Fulton

FOR some time it has been thought that there should be > closer relationship between the members' of the Institute engaged in education in the mining schools, the mining, metallurgical, ceramic, and geological departments of universities, and the members of the Institute actually engaged in the production of mineral products and the operation and direction of works. The American Society of Chemical Engineers and the American Ceramic Society have for some years past devoted especial attention to the educational matters of their respective fields. The Engineering Foundation, representing the great engineering societies of the country, is deeply interested in technical education and maintains a Committee on Educational Research.

Jan 1, 1932

By Granville S. Borden

This brief is a reconnaissance report on some prospects in the field of taxation which can safeguard our Mineral Resources. The brief is a prospectus soliciting help and enthusiastic cooperation in the common task of developing these prospects in a manner which will be most beneficial to all parties-the owners, operators, employees, tradesmen, the federal and state governments, and the people of this nation.

Jan 4, 1950

By AIME AIME

AN ENGINEER with as varied geographical experience as H. J. Brown does not often specialize on one particular thing all of his professional life. For forty years he has been engaged in gypsum mining, manufacturing, plant design, construction, and operation. Not only is it his work, but he says it is his hobby as well, though membership in three yacht clubs might belie that statement. New England's new representative on the A.I.M.E. Directorate, who was born in New York, Dec. 20, 1879, went to the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard at the turn of the century. He tried journalism for a year, with the Boston News Bureau and associated financial

Jan 1, 1940

HAVING demonstrated to you above the practice of bringing silver to its ultimate fineness and perfection, it now remains for me to describe how the two kinds of metals that are found in the smelting product that you made from the ores are to be brought to their end: One is copper and the other lead, and perhaps a third is gold, if per-chance the silver that you refined in the cupeling hearth contained any. It would be almost impossible that it should not contain any, because either a little or a lot is almost always found as an admixed substance not only in silver but in. every one of the other metals as well. But in order to continue in sequence, you must suppose that there is some gold and that, of the two materials you have that I mentioned above and told you to save, one is the matte (calling it according to the usage of Germany, * since I do not know a more exact or better word for describing it to you) and the .other is the litharge that you took from the cupeling hearth. In addition, the hearths themselves are saturated and full of lead. If these things should remain in their present condition they would be useless bodies without any perfection. First, taking one of the three said parts, as a material of greater quantity and also as a thing that needs greater labor, and because, being reduced to the point I have told you with smelting and evaporation, it is nearer to its end, I shall tell you what must be done in order to bring it to pure copper. As I have told you, there are two materials on hand, one of which is the matte and the other the litharge. Each at first sight seems a half-burned thing; one has already been finished metal and the other is to be, but in my opinion the matte is nearer to its end than is the litharge because the latter has been dried by the power of the fire and re-formed from another body. Now leaving aside the discussion of this thing, after the matte has been well evaporated and reduced, it is taken and put on a forge. In front of the tuyère a receptacle is made of stones that neither calcine nor melt, or of coals and powdered clay, in the form of a little cradle that is longer than it is wide and not very deep. Its length should be about one and a half

Jan 1, 1942

By Walter M. Small

Austria produced approximately 800 cisterns of 10,000 kg. each (56,000 bbls.) of crude oil of a 0.9428 sp. gr. during 1935. Of this Gosting II well near Zistersdorf, owned by the Erdolproduktions-Gesellschaft m.b.H., produced 86 per cent of the total, averaging a little over 1.8 cisterns, or about 125 bbl., per day. Gosting IVa of the same company was put in production early in December and produced a total of about 70 cisterns (4900 bbl.). Gosting IV was a failure, but a directional hole drilled from the same derrick produced Gosting IVa. Gosting I, a well owned jointly by the company above mentioned and the Raky-Danubia, was deepened late in the year and made about 2800 bbl. of oil at the rate of 70 bbl. per day. Completions during the year were as follows: In the Gosting pool, Gosting IV and IVa, drilled with rotary tools, the latter producing from Sarmat at a depth of 934 meters (3065 ft.); Kronberg I, of European Gas & Electric Co. with cable tools in Flysch at a depth of 566 m. as a dry hole; in the Oberlaa gas pool, one cable-tool well of the same company at a depth of 266 m. as a dry hole and one Fauck-Haiek system well of the Vacuum Oil Co. at a depth of 483 m. as a dry hole; one rotary hole of the European Gas & Electric Co. at Enzersdorf a/d. Fischa plugged and abandoned in Sarmat after a blow out and gas eruption at a depth of 699.5 meters. The status of drilling wells at close of the year is as follows: In the Gosting pool, Erdol Bohr- und Verwertungs G.m.b.H., north of the producing area, was drilling with rotary at 990 m., Raky-Danubia is rigged up to deepen the old Windisch-Baumgarten hole, Rohoel-Gewin-nungs A.G. (Vacuum-Shell combination) rigging up rotary south of the production, and Steinberg-Naphta G.m.b.H. (Musil) was deepened with light rotary to 830 m.; at Enzersdorf a/d. Fischa, the European Gas & Electric Co. E-2 rotary-drilled hole stood at 1533 m. in Miocene waiting

Jan 1, 1936

By Walter M. Small

Austria produced approximately 800 cisterns of 10,000 kg. each (56,000 bbls.) of crude oil of a 0.9428 sp. gr. during 1935. Of this Gosting II well near Zistersdorf, owned by the Erdolproduktions-Gesellschaft m.b.H., produced 86 per cent of the total, averaging a little over 1.8 cisterns, or about 125 bbl., per day. Gosting IVa of the same company was put in production early in December and produced a total of about 70 cisterns (4900 bbl.). Gosting IV was a failure, but a directional hole drilled from the same derrick produced Gosting IVa. Gosting I, a well owned jointly by the company above mentioned and the Raky-Danubia, was deepened late in the year and made about 2800 bbl. of oil at the rate of 70 bbl. per day. Completions during the year were as follows: In the Gosting pool, Gosting IV and IVa, drilled with rotary tools, the latter producing from Sarmat at a depth of 934 meters (3065 ft.); Kronberg I, of European Gas & Electric Co. with cable tools in Flysch at a depth of 566 m. as a dry hole; in the Oberlaa gas pool, one cable-tool well of the same company at a depth of 266 m. as a dry hole and one Fauck-Haiek system well of the Vacuum Oil Co. at a depth of 483 m. as a dry hole; one rotary hole of the European Gas & Electric Co. at Enzersdorf a/d. Fischa plugged and abandoned in Sarmat after a blow out and gas eruption at a depth of 699.5 meters. The status of drilling wells at close of the year is as follows: In the Gosting pool, Erdol Bohr- und Verwertungs G.m.b.H., north of the producing area, was drilling with rotary at 990 m., Raky-Danubia is rigged up to deepen the old Windisch-Baumgarten hole, Rohoel-Gewin-nungs A.G. (Vacuum-Shell combination) rigging up rotary south of the production, and Steinberg-Naphta G.m.b.H. (Musil) was deepened with light rotary to 830 m.; at Enzersdorf a/d. Fischa, the European Gas & Electric Co. E-2 rotary-drilled hole stood at 1533 m. in Miocene waiting

Jan 1, 1936

By Ernest J. Stocking

ENGINEERS are the key men in our war program today. Upon the technical knowledge and skill of the engineer and upon his administrative and executive abilities rests the entire success for the production of vital materials of the war. Naturally the work load of the engineering examining unit of the U. S. Civil Service Commission has increased greatly since our active participation in the war. At present, over 550 separate requests for certification of eligibles are received by the engineering unit per week. These represent more than a fourth of the total requests received for personnel by the Commission's central office at Washington and represent a recruitment work load of three to four times that carried by the whole Commission previous to January 1940. These requests represent a minimum of a thousand vacancies to be filled each week, while an average week will produce, at present, approximately 1400 vacancies and a weekly maximum may approach well over 2000 vacancies.

Jan 1, 1942

By Earl Oliver

IN times like these, the A. I. M. E. and similar societies have their greatest usefulness. . . . Individuals and companies acting alone in the development of public opinion are merely voices crying in the wilderness. United and organized they make a great force that can and does influence public action. . . . What part, if any, then, shall the A. I. M. E. take in these great stabilization processes of civilization? Shall it help to give direction and force to scientific knowledge which comes within its field of activity or shall it merely develop more of it? . . . Is it the A. I. M. E.'s function to help bring system, order and direction out of this situation so that the world can again have forward economic movement, or should it rest on its oars until other agenciess develop that public understanding and direction so necessary for economic progress? As we understand the functions of the A. I. M. E. Petro¬leum Division, they are to discover and promote knowl¬edge for the benefit of society on the mining of oil and gas. To the individual member of the Petroleum Division, there are certain advantages of social and professional contacts, but the collective purpose is that described. And the individual is benefited by membership only as the Division measures up to the purposes of its existence. Consequently, the welfare of this Division and that of its members depends on the extent to which it keeps pace with the needs of society on matters relating to the mining of oil and gas.

Jan 1, 1932

By L. L. Peterson, W. C. Morgan

This paper discusses some of the problems involved in predicting the productivity of a shovel and truck fleet in a new set of operating conditions. More specifically, it concentrates on the problems of predicting the travel times on the haul and return portions of the truck cycle under new profile conditions and the prediction of the interaction effect between the shovel and truck at the loading point. The ability to calculate the travel times for a new road profile is not new. Additional corrections of these calculated times for expected actual operation can be made. In considering the interaction between the loader and the hauler, there are two approaches that can be taken. Probably the most accurate method of predicting the shovel-truck interaction is a simulation of the step-by-step operation considering the variation in cycle times of the shovel and trucks. This is usually called a stochastic simulation and requires input describing how these cycle times vary. However, by understanding the causes of this shovel-truck interaction it is possible to make sufficiently accurate predictions with much simpler methods. Haulage Cycle Established from Existing Operations For the purpose of this discussion let us assume that the problem involves trying to predict the productivity of a single shovel-truck fleet at some future time in an existing operation. Let us also assume for simplification that the new operation to be simulated has the same loading and pit conditions and the same dumping conditions as did the existing operation. Therefore, the only difference would be the difference in the hauling profile for the new operation. The problem then becomes one of predicting the change in the travel times on the haul and return portions of the cycle, and in determining the change in interaction between and the shovel and trucks with the new truck cycle times.

Jan 12, 1968

By S. H. Penn

Preliminary experimental evidence seems to preclude the use of unlubricated mechanical force drills on the moon. Measured values of the coefficients of friction and adhesion between metallic and nonmetal-lic solids have been shown to increase in an ultra-high vacuum environment. The paucity of real knowledge of the influence of a hard lunar vacuum upon interacting solid surfaces, relegates current proposals to sample the moon with a mechanical force drill, to the equivalent of wildcatting on earth. Within a few years, drilling will be attempted on the lunar surface with tools that have been designed with parameters that are normally considered for most conventional terrestrial drills. Lunar drills must be light in weight, portable, have reasonable penetration rates, low manpower requirements, etc. Although the initial equipment cost is expected to be high, this will probably not be a critical factor. Early lunar drilling will be limited to shallow holes with depths of 10 ft or less. The primary function of these holes will be to furnish samples of lunar surface materials but they may also be utilized for other purposes, such as geophysical experiments. Instruments may be installed in them capable of measuring thermal diffusivity, gamma radiation, etc. As sampling will be the primary objective of the earliest holes, sample contamination is a parameter that effectively excludes such otherwise promising techniques as explosive or plasma jet drilling. The most desirable method is probably some form of mechanical force drilling that has the capability of operating in the extreme lunar thermal environment (125° to 37S°K), high vacuum (10- l3 torr range), and low gravity.

Jan 1, 1968

By Rex T. Ellington

The fluidized bed is an effective method for investigating retorting phenomena and possibly a commercial means of retorting oil shale. Both were examined by Sinclair Oil (now part of Atlantic Richfield Co.) in the period 1965-1698. The results of the work show that the presence of an oxidizing environment during retorting results in loss of oil yield which indicates that vapor phase oil burns in preference to combustion of coke on spent shale. Consideration of hardware indicates that there are several possibilities for commercial embodiment. As a companion to shaft-type retorts the fluidized bed could have good potential. Realistic assessment of costs suggests that further development may have to wait commercialization of another process.

Jan 1, 1974

By Fred C. Bond

IN crushing and grinding the larger particles are more exposed to the work input. They absorb most of the work and protect the smaller neighboring particles from destructive contact with the crushing surfaces or grinding media. The importance of this exposure differential upon the reduction efficiency and product size distribution has long been recognized. Unfortunately, there has heretofore been no direct method of evaluating it, and such indirect methods as observing the slope of the plotted product size distribution line have been used as an indication. In this presentation the Third Theory of Comminution' has been used, together with the exponential formula for size distribution, to evaluate the ex- posure ratio and exposure constant and to illustrate examples of their utility in crushing and grinding applications. The exposure ratio Er varies from zero to unity. It is zero when the product particles are all of one size, and it is unity when the work input has been equally distributed among all particle sizes. It can readily be found from screen analyses plotted according to the Third Theory. The exposure constant K is derived from the reciprocal of the exposure ratio Er. It permits more consistent predictions of size distributions and evaluation of many factors concerned in size reduction operations. The Third Theory1 states that the specific work input required for size reduction is inversely proportional to the square root of the product size less the work required to form the feed. When P represents the diameter in microns which 80 pct of the product passes, F is the size 80 pct of the feed passes, Wi

Jan 1, 1958

By James M. Barker

Jan 1, 1985

By C. F. Riisness, E. R. Parker

THAT grain size has a great effect on the mechanical properties of metals has been recognized for a long time. Bassett and Davis1 in 1919 did excellent work in [ ] determining the effect of grain size on the hardness of brass. About the same time Jeffries2 and Sykes3 ascertained the effect of grain size on the strength and ductility of several metals at temperatures ranging from 80°K. to their melting points. When creep was recognized as an important property of metals, those engaged in the study of this property tried to determine the effect of grain size 4-9 on creep rates. Unfortunately, most of the investigations were conducted on only two grain sizes, often designated simply as "fine" and "coarse." It is well known that at high temperatures coarse-grained test bars creep less than fine-grained bars. The relation between grain size and size of test bar, [ ] however, has been frequently overlooked. In his early work, Jeffries2 showed that the number of grains in the cross section has a more important influence on the properties of the material than the actual grain size. More recently Hanson and Sandford10 and Pell-Walpole,11 in their measurements of the creep and tensile properties of tin, tested a wide range of grain sizes and correlated the grain size with the strength. Hanson9 later established the relation between the number of grains in the cross section and the. creep rate: At high temperatures, generally a coarse-grained structure is considered superior in creep to a fine-grained structure, but it is evident that for a given bar size continuously increasing the grain size will

Jan 1, 1944

By I. E. Rosenzweig

THE problem considered in this paper is as follows: An arbitrary horizontally stratified area is given. The electrical properties of this area are characterized by a function p(z) (Fig. 1), which shows the relationship between resistivity p of thes oil and the depth z. For such general case the apparent resistivity p* will be computed, by FIG. 1.-GRAPH OF FUNCTION p(z) FIG. 2.-GRAPH OF p(Z) FOR n HOMO-GENEOUS LAYERS. earth-resistivity measurements carried out by any given configuration of electrodes. General solutions of this problem appear to be very important for interpretation of field results of resistivity measurements, concerning structural investigations. Such solutions have been given by many authors for the special case of a finite number of homogeneous layers (Fig. 2)1-4 as well as for the more general case of continuously rang-ing resistivities. 5-8

Jan 1, 1939

By O. D. Gaither

This paper is an analytical study of the flow of fluids through small vertical conduits. Small conduits are defined as 11/4-in. nominal diameter tubing size and smaller, and approximately twice this area for annular conduits (i.e., 1- X 21/2-in. annulus and smaller). Experimental data are presented for the 1-X2-in. and 11/4- X 2%-in. annuli, and the I-in. and 11/4-in. tubing, since these represent the small conduit sizes and configurations generally encountered in oilfield applications. Data have been gathered for these conduits for single-phase water, single-phase gas and two-phase water-gas mixtures, with particular emphasis on high gas-liquid ratios. Water rates in excess of 2,000 BID and gas rates in excess of 2.5 MMcf/D, and two-phase flow ratios in between these two, represent the scope of the data gathered. Existing equations have been applied to predict flowing pressures and compared with experimental data. New correlations have been developed. INTRODUCTION The increased economic pressure on the domestic oil industry in the United States has constantly required the use of new techniques and equipment designed to reduce the cost of finding and producing oil and gas. Since tangible items are most readily apparent in economic analysis, the advent of lower-cost well completions was inevitable. One of the methods used to reduce costs which has received widespread attention is the slim-hole completion technique where tubing is used as the well casing and in which small conduits are used for tubing if necessary. Small conduits, defined by Kirkpatrick1 as "11/4-in. diameter nominal tubing and smaller for tubing flow and less than twice the 11/4-in. diameter nominal tubing internal flow area for annulus flow", have also found widespread usage as siphon strings for de-watering gas wells and as "kill" strings in deep high-pressure oil and gas wells. The growing use of small-diameter tubing has resulted in an increased need for development of improved methods to measure or predict flowing bottom-hole pressures since the physical dimensions generally preclude the use of subsurface-recording pressure gauges. Even in the cases where small bombs are available, the relatively high velocities encountered at nominal flow rates make it necessary to use excessive weight bars or special hold-down devices. Attempts to use recognized correlations to accurately predict flowing or gas-lift performance in wells equipped with small conduits have been generally unsuccessful. Insufficient field data were available to allow the development of a correlation on this basis, and an experimental approach was applied in an attempt to obtain a workable relation. The experimental approach used to obtain the data presented in this paper was actually a compromise between a field installation and a laboratory study. A test well 1,000 ft in length was used to obtain flow data on single-phase liquid, single-phase gas and two-phase water-gas flowing mixtures. Liquid rates up to 2,200 B/D and gas rates up to 3 MMcf/D were used in the single-phase flow studies. Two-phase flow rates from 100 to 600 B/D with gas-liquid ratios from 500 to 8,000 cu ft/bbl were recorded. Experimental data were obtained for single- and two-phase flow through 1-in and 11/4-in. nominal tubing, and through the annuli between 1- and 2-in. and 11/4- and 2%-in. nominal tubing strings. Experimental results for the two-phase flow are compared to the Poettmann-Carpenter correlation2 which is widely used as a comparative standard for development of multiphase flow predictions in flowing and gas-lift wells. Correlations developed by Tek,3 Baxendell and Thomas" were also investigated. The experimental data recorded herein fell in between the two flow regimes as defined by Ros," and this correlation also failed to yield satisfactory results. The fact that existing correlations failed to confirm the experimental data led to the need for development of a new correlation. Although a two-phase flow study was the primary objective of this investigation, data were also recorded for single-phase flow of water and gas, and constants were developed relating to pipe roughness and equivalent diameters for annular flow. These single-phase studies assisted materially in the development of certain of the two-phase flow results. Considerable previous work has been published which presented relationship of surface measurements to bottom-hole condition. The works of Buthod and Whiteley,6 Jones,' Poettmannb and the Texas Railroad Commission" are classic examples of the successful use of mathematical relationships which allow acceptable predictions of subsurface pressures, when gas is the flowing fluid. Darcy and others have derived relationships which may be used with minor modifications to predict subsurface flowing conditions in injection and water-supply wells. As previously stated, the application of the single-phase flow relationships

By H. Yoshida, B. G. Liebmann, R. E. Green

In recent years considerable work has been undertaken in order to gain an understanding of the mechanisms responsible for the generation of recrystal- lization textures in face-centered-cubic metals. Two theories have been proposed, that of oriented growth1 and that of oriented nucleation,' and several attempts have been made to check these theories directly by recrystallizing deformed single crystals.3-5 Two groups, Graham-Cahn and Liebmann-Liicke-Masing, studied the orientation of recrystallized grains and their rate of growth, both using strained aluminum single crystals of commercial purity (Graham et al., 99.6 pct, Liebmann et al., 99.8 pct). Surprisingly, the results obtained by the two groups were completely

Jan 1, 1960

Jan 1, 1905

By C. E. MacQuigg

BY and large the education of the engineer has been conservative and the reasons for this are obvious. Quite properly it has been a tradition of engineering education that facts and not fancies must be adhered to. Without a doubt, those men who formed the mold of our engineering philosophy as much as it is possible for such molds to be established-rightly held the highest standards of intellectual honesty. Fortunately, it was unthinkable to them to temporize with untried theories and naturally the men whom they trained as engineering educators carry this philosophy in turn to their students, thus handing down the tradition of stability.

Jan 1, 1943