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By E. R. MARBLE

THE introduction of a new fuel, such as natural gas, necessitates careful study where it has not been used previously. At the El Paso smelter natural gas required the installation of apparatus with which no one at the plant was familiar, either as to the type of equipment needed or as to the burning of the gas in it. Observation of existing installations of a similar character and assistance from gas engineers served as a basis to determine what was advisable to use. The gas line entering the plant goes to a metering station equipped with a duplicate system of pressure regulators, a temperature recorder and the gas company and smelter orifice meters in tandem. There are three distribution lines that can be inter-connected at a later date, if necessary, to assist in equalizing the plant load. All the larger lines are of heavy

Jan 1, 1930

George A. Packard, Boston, Mass. (communication to the Secretary†):—The very interesting results obtained by Prof. Hofman and his assistants came to my attention when I had temporarily assumed charge of the metallurgical department of the Missouri School of Mines, and had found it, pending the completion of a new building, lacking a furnace in which to roast ore preparatory to the customary lead blast-furnace run. An attempt at lime-roasting had been already determined upon, but the use of a charge which would make a slag of definite composition was a new idea. The results following were obtained by Messrs. Aubrey Fellows, J. C. Long, E. R. Wash, and Dr. T. C. Tseung, under my supervision. It is regretted that the data are not more complete; but the work was done simply incidentally to securing the desired ore for the blast-

Jan 1, 1908

JAN. 17-In what appears to be a general spirit of post-Christmas emotional malaise, most adult Americans have bidden farewell to the Forties and turned with no perceptible enthusiasm toward the Fifties. The dying decade had started amid a phoney war which verged on the romantic, stirred the pulse with excitement and seemed far away. A phoney peace dominates the new decade. The romance is no longer there. Nor is the excitement. Nor is the distance. While most of the world preferred to be chronologically correct and hold off for another year before celebrating the demise of the first half of the twentieth century, the United States with true competitive enterprise and a great whirl of words scurried into the second half a year early. This undue haste might perhaps have been dictated unconsciously by a yearning for the pattern of history to be repeated. For many centuries, ever since Roman times, the second half of most centuries tended to be far more tranquil than the first half. In Washington, Mr. Truman got on both sides of the mid-century line with all the aplomb of a good politician. He told Congress early in January that "the state of the Union continues to be good," as it nears "the midpoint of the twentieth century." Later he spoke of moving forward into the second half of the century. He promised an infinitely better life for everyone, whichever side of the mid-century line, and reaffirmed his prescription toward that end: assistance for small businesses; more houses for the middle-income groups; tougher anti-monopoly laws, retention of rent controls; development of natural resources; better insurance against the hazards of old age, idleness and unemployment; better medical care and education, civil rights legislation; new labor relations law and production payments to support farm incomes. All this was to be coupled with suggestions on how to balance the budget. The bloody and confusing 1940's had brought to most men's minds a fear of the future such as they had not known for centuries, and Mr. Truman's objective is to temper that fear. Only time will tell whether the terminal point of such a philosophy would or would not belie the old English proverb citing inability to both eat and have a cake. Brave words to the contrary, the national budget persisted in sliding off into the red. The smell of further inflation was equally persistent. And just to impart a little more zip to the trend, the American Federation of Labor announced its intention of seeking "substantial" and "large" wage increases this year. The AFL forewarns of a business slump after June and a 10¢ an hr wage in¬crease for each worker "will be enough to reverse the prospective downward trend and start a rise." Thus it goes-"the way to halt a drop in demand for labor is to raise the price of labor." Elsewhere in the harassed world, beleagured individualists in New York achieved a local triumph of sorts for one of the freedoms denied by the Soviet and Nazi systems-the right of escape, some escape at least, from the servitude to decibels. Grand Central Station weakened perceptibly at Christmas on its 5-min commercials and bore down heavily on "Hark, The Herald Angels Sing," and on New Year's Day capitulated entirely by abandoning the broadcasting of canned music and slugs of advertising slogans. In Europe, M. Bidault's Assembly majority fell away and newspaper accounts of the incredible monstrosities of political trials beyond the iron curtain were supplanted by headlines marking the birth of Princess Yasmin. The latter was surrounded by Byzantine splendor but otherwise showed no apparent deviation from the accepted norm. In Western Germany, Dr. Adenauer began to speak up more boldly, and the whole fabric of Allied policy towards the defeated enemy further dossolved under the impact of rivalry with the Russians. In the Far East both the Americans and British seem somewhat embarrassed by Chiang Kai-shek's refusal to lie down. Dual thinking regarding the "squalid and useless struggle in the China seas" is such that newspapers give sympathetic accounts to an American ship running supplies to the Communists at Shanghai while calling for help for the recognized Chinese government in Formosa. And with Britain recognizing Communist China they may well have to team up with Russia against the United States to kick the Chinese representative off the UNO Security Council, the Far Eastern Commission and the Allied Council in Tokyo. Far Eastern policy has never been a bipartisan matter and as General Chiang retreated to his final redoubts in Formosa and Hainan, a number of Republicans pecked away at Administration lassitude. Senator Smith advocated the occupation of Formosa and Messrs. Hoover and Taft asked for use of the Navy. Mr. Acheson has stood firm, however, against military aid. None the less, a study will be made of the Generalissimo's chances. Mr. Truman has a private purse of $75 million for the Far East and some $94 million in frozen ECA funds. Mr. Truman will likely trade some of this money for support of new Marshall plan appropriations, always mindful, of course, of Mr. Acheson's plan to drive a wedge between the Chinese and Moscow, and his wish to avoid any revival of imperialist nightmares throughout the Orient. Mr. Acheson is very convinced that the victories of Communism in China will be short-lived and South Asia will not fall

Jan 2, 1950

By AIME AIME

As already announced, the XCIIId meeting of the Institute will be held at Toronto, beginning July 23, 1907. Hotel Headquarters will be at the King Edward Hotel, in which also the sessions will be held. The Queens, Rossin, Wallen, Iroquois and Palmer are good hotels not far from the King Edward. Members must secure their hotel-accommodations beforehand, by direct correspondence with the hotel they select. For those who neglect this precaution, the Local Committee will doubtless do what it can, but is unable to promise anything. Correspondence concerning this meeting (including notices of intention to attend it) should be addressed hereafter exclusively to Mr. W. G. Miller, Provincial Geologist, Bureau of Mines, Toronto, who is the representative of the Local Committee. The excursion to Cobalt, Lake Tenagami, Sudbury, etc., arranged by that Committee, involves the use of a special Pullman train for meals and lodging. After waiting a reasonable time to hear from members, the Local Committee has made its contract for Pullman cars. According to its latest report, there was still room for additional excursionists. Under this head, application made immediately to Mr. Miller may not be too late. Sessions for the presentation of papers, etc., will be held at the King Edward Hotel on Tuesday afternoon, July 23, and Wednesday morning and afternoon, July 24. The following papers have been accepted: 1. Sonic Reflections on Secrecy in the Arts, by James Douglas, New York, N. Y. .2. The Wilfley Table, by R. H. Richards, Boston, Mass. 3. The Tar-Sands of the Athabaska District, by' Robert Bell, Ottawa, Can. 4. The Occurrence of Nickel in Virginia, by Thomas L. Watson, Blacksburg, Va. 5. Coal-Briquetting in the United States, by E. W. Parker, Washington, D. C.

Jul 1, 1907

By L. T. Leyson, U. C. Tainton

Some time ago, at ameeting of the Institute Prof. J. W. Richards1 said, "I take exception to the statement that all the factors in the production of electrolytic zinc were known long ago.... There is possible in my opinion an improvement of perhaps 50 per cent. in the new electrolytic processes." An examination of the literature of the subject will show the justness of Professor Richards' contention. The work of the earlier investigators was carried on in the shadow of difficulties that, today, are hardly more than memories. We seldom hear now of zinc sponge, that bête noir of the electrolytic-zinc pioneers. Zinc sponge was the name given to a peculiar, soft, black, non-adherent form of zinc deposit that was utterly useless for melting into ingot form. At the big plant at Cockle Creek, New South Wales, in 1897, Edgar Ashcroft2 said that the solution in the plant would suddenly, and without ascertainable cause, go' "bad" and begin to deposit spongy zinc. The most delicate, even spectroscopic, methods of analysis were unable to detect any difference between "good" solution and "bad" solution; either form might change to the other on being kept for a while. When it is added that an outbreak of this insidious disease (which appeared to be infectious, or at least contagious) could be dealt with only by discarding the solution and washing out all tanks and pipe lines, some idea may be gathered of the troubles of the zinc electrometallurgist in what may be spoken of as the "sponge age" of electrolytic zinc. Thanks to the efforts of a number of investigators, we are today able to diagnose with considerable certitude the nature of the malady that puzzled Ashcroft and his co-workers. The researches of Mylius and

Jan 1, 1924

By S. J. CRAIGHEAD

IN 1912 the United States Smelting Refining and Mining Company made a large investment in a number of coal properties in Utah and in 1915 a subsidiary, the United States Fuel Co., was organized to take over these properties. Operations started in 1916 and the Company soon became, and remains, one of the major coal producers of the State. It now produces approximately one million tons of coal annually, which is about 22 per cent of Utah's output. The U. S. Fuel Co. owns large reserves of good coal and is in a position to expand operations with the industrial growth now taking place in the West. Traveling through the Western States, one is struck by numerous advertising signs portraying the picture of jovial Old King Cole of nursery rhyme fame. His rotund figure and beaming countenance are the symbols of Utah King Coal, the product of the King mine of U. S. Fuel Co. King Coal is a by-word of quality coal throughout all the Western States.

Jan 1, 1948

Secretary's Note.—M. Beutter's introductory remarks, being simply a resume of Prof. Hone's paper, with a disclaimer of the intention to criticise it, have been omitted, and the remainder of this contribution lias been somewhat condensed, without omitting any essential statements. M. Beutter, St. Etienne, France* (communication to the Secretary†):—Professor Home observes in $ 47 of his paper that the fluid-compression of steel diminishes piping by forcing the liquid and viscous metal, while the pipe is forming, or after it has formed, into the space so produced, and proceeds to study the different systems of compression, alluding to the four principal ones: Whitworth, Illingmorth, Williams, and Harmet. Having now for many years had in use the last-named process, that of M. Henri Harmet, I shall attempt to explain the difference between it and the three other processes named. The Harmet process does not diminish or close the pipe after it has formed, but prevents it from forming; and I may add that it is the only one of the four which produces this result. It is true that the Whitworth process diminishes the interior hollow by localizing it around the central axis of the ingot, which is afterwards removed by trepanning the hollow forg-ings for which this process has been, I believe, always exclusively used. The Illingworth and Williams processes, which, in my opinion, are applicable only to small ingots, of necessity allow the pipe to form, or (to use the expression of Professor Howe) they allow the surface of the lake of liquid steel to sink into the interior of the ingot, since they involve waiting a certain time before compression, so that (in the case of the Williams process) the ingot-mold can be opened without danger, or (in the case of the Illingworth process) so as to avoid the risk that the steel may enter the grooves produced by the removal of the distance-bars. During the time required for

Jan 1, 1908

By Y. C. Liu, G. A. Alers

The anisotropy of Young's modules has been measured in a series of Cu-Zn alloys containing from 1 to 28 wt pct Zn and cold-rolled to 97.5 pct reduction in thickness. These modulus data show a transition in texture as a function of zinc content. In alloys containing 3 pct Zn or less, the texture is essentially that of copper. A transition is clearly seen to develop in 5 and 8 pct Zn alloys, and to have been completed in a 12 pct Zn alloy. Increasing the proportion of zinc to 28 pct does not produce any further changes in texture. The ease and clarity with which this texture transition can be seen in the modulus data is in great contrast with the inccertainty in the visual detertiination of the range of texture transition from a series of pole figures. It is also shown that the rolling texture of the high zinc content alloys cannot be a one-COIIIponenl texture, characterized by the (110)(112) ideal orientations, as usually assumed. A second, quite important component must also be present. Furthermore, the present data are inconsistent with matrix orientations on which the "oriented growth" hypothesis of the Formation of recrystallization textures is based. THE rolling textures of binary fcc alloy systems have generally been considered to lie between two terminal textures. One of these terminal textures is the copper type and the other is the 70:30 brass type. Alloys of intermediate solute content exhibit a texture which is said to be a transition between the two terminal textures. On the basis of efforts to correlate rolling and recrystallization textures, two concepts have been advanced in the literature on the nature of these transition textures. One school1 suggests that the addition of alloying elements, e.g., zinc, causes a gradual rotation about one of the (111) poles from the (358)( 523) ideal orientation of the copper-type rolling texture to the terminal {1 10)( 112) ideal orientation used to describe the rolling texture of 70:30 brass. This concept is depicted in Fig. 1 with the angle of rotation corresponding approximately to the zinc content and is designated here as the "rotational concept", since the ideal orientation of the transition textures varies continuously with alloy content. The other concept,' the "mixture concept", suggests that the copper-type rolling texture is a two-component texture. {358) (523) and {110)(112). The addition of alloying elements affects only quantitatively the relative amounts of these two components—a decrease in the amount of material in the {385}(523) orientation and an increase of that in the {110)(112) orientation with increasing solute content. An experimental distinction between these two concepts is essential to a better understanding of both the mechanism of formation of rolling textures and the subsequent formation of recrystailization textures in fcc metals. Because of the lack of resolution inherent in pole figures, it has not been possible to differentiate between the two concepts on the basis of this data. Both concepts, in fact, make use of the same set of pole figures but interpret them in a manner acco-rding to the view held.'" Experimental results obtained from inverse pole figures or selected-area electron diffraction3j4 simply -yield more refined pole figures but do not eliminate the ambiguity of interpretation. Quantitative measurement of an entirely different, orientation-dependent property must thus be considered

Jan 1, 1967

By William B. Plank

AGAIN the records show an unprecedented enrollment of students in the mineral technology schools of the United States and Canada. In the current year, 1938-'39, 9619 students were resident in the 53 schools of the United States arid 1014 in the six schools of Canada. These data are from my fifth study of the mineral technology schools of the United States and Canada. the last previous study having been made for the year 1936-'37. The undertaking as previously was made under the auspices of the Mineral Industry Education Division of the A. I. M. E. The data or, the various schools were collected in the same way as for former studies.

Jan 1, 1939

By A. O. Dady

PRODUCERS of both bituminous and anthracite coal have for many years been worrying about the gradually decreasing consumption of their product in the United States. Twenty years ago production had climbed to a peak of 569,000,000 tons of bituminous and around 90,000,000 tons of anthracite. In 1939 it was about 393,000,000 tons of bituminous and 51,000,000 tons of anthracite. This does not mean that the country is using less polver than it did twenty years ago, or that we are living in colder buildings. As a matter of fact, about three times as much electric power is now being consumed as in 1920. In general two factors are responsible for the drop in coal consumption: (1) greater efficiency in the use of coal, and (2) increased competition from hydro power, internal-combustion engines, and substitution of oil and gas for coal in conventional furnaces. As to the first factor, it took 3 Ib. of coal to generate a kilowatt-hour of electricity in central stations in 1920 and it takes 1.4 Ib. now; it took about 175 Ib. of coal in railroad locomotives to haul 1000 long tons a mile in 1920 where it talces about 120 lb. now: and marked economies have also been made in the use of coal in steel plants: in by-product coke ovens, and in other large uses. As to the second factor, three times as much electricity is produced from water power now as was produced in 1920; three times as much oil is being consumed in various ways; and likewise, the consumption of natural gas has tripled- whereas coal consumption in the same period has dropped by 40 per cent

Jan 1, 1941

McCulloch, Leon.-Experiments with Sherardizing. Discussed by Fred. L. Wolf, Willis M. Peirce, Jesse L. Jones, O. W. Storey, David R. Kellogg, William H. Finkeldey, L. H. Marshall 2 Bassett, W. H. and Davis, C. H.-Spectrum Analysis in an Industrial Laboratory. Discussed by C. S. Brainin, C. H. Davis, W. H. Bassett, George K. Burgess, George K. Elliott, Leonard Waldo, Keivin Burns 8 Roast, Harold J. and Pascoe, Charles F.-Arsenical Bearing Metals. Discussed by Jesse L. Jones, William A. Cowan,. William K. Frank, William M. Corse, Harold J. Roast 10 Bain, Edgar C.-Crystal Structure of Solid Solutions. Discussed by Ancel St. John, Edgar C. Bain, Paul D. Merica 14 Peirce, Willis M.-Studies on the Constitution of Binary Zinc-base Alloys. Discussed by George K. Burgess, Willis M. Peirce, D. H. Ingall, J. L. Haughton, K. E. Bingham 16 Webster, William R.-Application in Rolling of Effects of Carbon, Phosphorus and Manganese on Mechanical Properties of Steel. Discussed by George B. Waterhouse, J. O. Liebig, Ralph H. Sweetser, H. T. Morris, F. D. Carney, W. P. Barba, John H. Nelson, George K. Burgess 19 Barba, W. P. and Howe, Henry M.-Acid Open-hearth Process for Manufacture of Gun Steels and Fine Steels. Discussed by W. J. Priestley, Haakon Styri, C. T. Patterson, Harry Brearley, W. P. Barba, George F. Comstock, Alexander L. Feild 24 Kellogg, David R.-Electrolytic Deposition of Iron for Building up Worn or Undersized Parts. Discussed by Jesse L. Jones, William Blum, C. R. Hayward, George K. Burgess, C. P. Perin, David R. Kellogg 33 McQuaid, H. W. and Elm, E. W.-Effect of Quality of Steel on Case-carburizing Results. Discussed by H. J. French and L. Jordan, W. J. Priestley, M. H. Schmid, A. E. White, H. J. Stagg and S. C. Spalding, Henry S. Rawdon, J. S. Vanick 35 Phillips, Arthur and Davenport, E. S.-Malleableizing of White Cast Iron. Discussed by Samuel Epstein, H. A. Schwartz, A. E. White, R. S. Archer.... 58 Priestley, William J.-Effect of Sulfur and Oxides in Ordnance Steel. Discussed by Harry T. Morris, William J. Priestley, C. P. Perin, James H. Gray, W. P. Barba, Haakon Styri, Frank D. Carney, W. L. Harbrecht, George F. Comstock, E. J. Janitzky 67

Jan 5, 1922

By B. E. Eakin, A. L. Lee, M. H. Gonzalez

Expeximental viscosity and density data of lour natural gases are presented for temperatures from WO to 340F and pressures from 100 to 8.000 psia. A correlation is also discussed and results reported. INTRODUCTION This investigation is one of several efforts by the authors to provide viscosity data for pure hydrocarbons and mixtures. Results of some pure hydrocarbons and their mix tures have been presented." Several predictive methods and correlations have also been reported.'," This paper presents the experimental viscosity and density data of four natural gases and confirms a correlation in a previous study. APPARATUS The viscometer was described previously. 2,6 A bank of stainless steel pycnometers was included to determine density in conjunction with the viscosity measurements (Fig. I). DATA AND MATERIALS The natural gases were furnished by the Atlantic Richfield Co. (Samples 1 and 21, the Continental Oil Co. (Sample 3) and the Pan American Petroleum Corp. (Sample 4). Table 1 shows the composition of these gases obtained by mass spectrometer analysis. The pure component viscosity data used in the correlation have been published."".'"', '" Experimental and calculated viscosity data for the natural gases are presented in Tables 2 through 5. CORRELATION Starling and Ellington"' have reported several semi-empirical expressions based to a certain extent on the theory of viscosity advanced by Born and Green.' The final expression presented by Starling and Ellingto'n is: i'. (micropoise) -- /t,, exp rX(7') p ..... (I) Eq. 1 was modified by Lee et 01." to represent mixture and pure component data simultaneously. This equation has the form: F = K exp [XpY] :.........(2) where K=- (7.77 i 0.0063M)Ti 122.4 + 12.9M +T .................(3) ' ' ' X= 2.57 + ---1914.5+ 0.0095M .... (4) Y = 1.11 -r 0.04 X ........(5) Over the pressure and temperature range studied in this investigation, this equation represents the data on methane, ethane, propane, n-butane and four methane-n-butane mixtures with a standard deviation* of ? 1.89 per cent. Density data by Sage and Lacey" were used to fit the equations. Eq. 2 gives reliable values of the viscosity of light hydrocarbons without prior knowledge of experimental viscosity values, but accurate density data must be available. Eq. 2 was used to predict viscosity values for the natural gases studied in this paper. The particular set of parameters contained in Eqs. 3 through 5 gave values that reproduced experimental data within 25 per cent. Needless to say, in using Eq. 2 better density values will give better viscosity results. However, those engineers who do not have accurate density values at hand or the time, or such facilities as a library, computer, etc. readily available, may feel uneasy in using Eq. 2. Therefore, the authors sought the easiest but by no means best density prediction method, which was reported by Kaf 30 years ago. A set of density values, which were calculated based on Kay's method, and a generalized compressibility factor chart were used to fit Eq. 2. The results are:

Jan 1, 1967

By Albert Sauveur

THE senior author of this paper has expressed the belief that when gamma iron transforms into alpha iron on reaching the A3 point, each gamma grain does not change bodily into one or more alpha grains but that the alpha phase forms first at the boundaries and along the crystallographic planes of the austenite grains.1 To quote: On cooling through the point A, at about 900° C., iron passes from the gamma condition to a. new allotropic form generally designated as alpha. This transforma¬tion, however, is not instantaneous. There are good reasons for believing that it begins at the grain boundaries and along the octahedral planes of the crystals and that it progresses until each grain of gamma iron is changed into a grain of alpha iron, the resulting structure being similar to that of gamma iron. Were it possible to retain at room temperature pure iron but partially transformed, it seems probable that a Widmanstättian structure, or rather, as later explained, a martensitic structure would be observed (Fig. 1), consisting of alpha iron at the boundaries and at the octahedral planes, and of a groundmass of gamma iron. In order to confirm, if possible, the accuracy of that view, a number of experiments were conducted. Polished samples of electrolytic iron were heated in a vacuum, maintained in the gamma range for several hours and quenched in different media. It was hoped by such means to produce and retain on the polished surfaces a pattern which would reveal the mechanism of the allotropic transformation. The samples were placed in evacuated quartz tubes, heated to 1000° C. and held 2 hr. at that temperature. The tubes were then immersed in the quenching bath. Iced brine and liquid air were used first. The polyhedral austenitic structure existing at the time of immersion was very clearly revealed (Fig. 2). This is generally ascribed to iron volatilizing at the grain boundaries.

Jan 1, 1929

By Arthur Notman

THE COMMITTEE on Production Control of the Institute has accomplished little or nothing tangible during the last year. For this the chairman must accept responsibility and whatever praise or blame goes with it. However, we have all had plenty of opportunity to observe the results obtained by various producing groups in their attempts to regulate production to meet demand dur¬ing the last few years. It would be putting it mildly to say that these have not been such as to inspire confidence in the methods pursued. The present plight of the wheat, cotton, coffee and sugar growers; the oil, copper, lead, zinc and tin producers, to name a few of the unfortunates, suggests a common cause perhaps beyond their control. There is a growing tendency to question as outmoded the theories of laissez faire economics, with its laws of competition, supply and demand, with price as the automatic regulator. The position is maintained that something new should be substituted because these laws no longer work. Many solutions are offered, ranging in the world at large from the planned economy of Russia, with the profit element removed, to the military controlled economy of Fascism, and in our own country from voluntary curtailment to martial law. But one hardly feels driven by any irresistible logic to put his finger on any one of these proposals, and to say this is the one in which I believe. On turning to one's neighbors, one is still more confused by the realization that this intellectual uncertainty is wide-spread. Isolation or cooperation, protection or free trade, the gold standard, bimetallism or managed currencies, de¬flation or inflation, all have their proponents in whose eyes one or the other of these slogans will afford the panacea for all our ills.

Jan 1, 1933

By R. R. Vandervoort

The creep behavior of Nb(Cb), Ta, Mo, and W was determined under conditions of constant atomic dif-fzisivity, constant stress to elastic modulus ratio, and nearly equivalent grain size, and the steady-state creep rates obtained from these tests were correlated with calculated stacking fault energies for the metals. These results, in conjunction with similar data for several fccMetals,13 suggest that stacking fault energy may influence the creep strength ofbcc metals. The interrelationship between steady-state creep rate, subgrain size, and stacking fault energy was examined. It was found that the subgrain size for a given creep stress, increased as stacking fault energy increased, but that this relationship did not cormpletely account for the effect of stacking fault energy on creep rate. The crystallography and energetics of stacking fault formation in bcc metals has been discussed by a num-ber of authors,1-5 and impurity stabilized stacking faults on (112) planes have been observed in Nb,6,7 w,8,9 Fe,] and V" by transmission electron microscopy. However, a crucial question is whether or not stack-ing faults influence the mechanical strength of bcc metals. Potentially, stacking faults could increase strength by reducing the mobility of the partial dis-locations bounding the fault, by acting as barriers to slip dislocations, and by retarding the climb of dislo-cations during high-temperature deformation. The objective of this study was to seek a correlation be-tween creep strength and stacking fault energy for several bcc metals; namely, Nb, Ta, Mo, and W. The creep behavior of most polycrystalline metals and alloys at high temperatures and moderate stresses can be described by the following relation:11,12 im=Af(s) where i, = minimum creep rate, A = constant, j(s) = a function involving metallurgical structure, a = applied stress, E = average elastic modulus at the test tempera-ture, w = constant (equal to 5 for most pure metals), D = diffusion coefficient. One factor in the structure function F(s) which sig- R. R. VANDERVOORT, Member AlME is Research Metallurgist, Process and Materials Development Division, Chemistry Department, Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Livermore, Calif. Manuscript submitted February 28, 1969. IMD nificantly affects the creep resistance of fcc metals is stacking fault energy, and creep rate has been shown to vary directly with stacking fault energy to the 3.5 power." In the latter investigation, four fcc metals of widely different stacking fault energies (Ag, Cu, Ni, and Al) were creep tested at a constant stress to modulus ratio of 1.21 x 10-4, at a constant diffusivity of 2.7 x 10-12 sq cm per sec, and at nearly equivalent grain sizes of about 0.7 mm. The creep data were then correlated with stacking fault energies. In the present study, a similar procedure was followed. All materials used in this work were consolidated by powder metallurgy techniques. Impurity contents in the as-received materials are listed in Table I. Chemical analyses showed that no measurable contamination of the test specimens occurred during pretest annealing treatments or creep testing. Specimens with a gage section 0.75 by 0.125 by 0.050 in. were creep tested in tension in a vacuum of less than 10-9 torr. Deformation at temperature was measured by tracking fiducial marks on the gage section of the specimen with an optical comparator. Optical deformation measurements also permitted observation of the macroscopic characteristics of the deformation Table I. Typical Specimen Impurity Content, ppm Nb Ta Mo W C 45 10 155 6 O 185 30 4 10 N 30 6 3 2 H 5 I 1 <1 als 3 10 2 15 Ca <5 I3 5 Cr 5 <3 10 <5 Cu 10 50 2 15 Fc 10 10 150 35 Ni 2 150 20 <5 Si <I0 1 3 <10 Ta 100 Ti 10 8 1 Zi 15 50 1 3 Table II. Test Conditions for Constant Stress-Modulus Ratio of 6 X 10.&apos; and Constant Diffusivity of 2.7 X 10-12 sq cm per see, and Grain Size Values for the Given Pretest Annealing Treatments Literature references Pretest Annealing for E and D Treatment Stress, Temperature, ___"&apos;Values__ Grain Tempera-Metal psi "C E D Size, mm ture, .C Time hr Nb 745 1525 14 15 to 17 0.83 1650 I Ta 1220 1770 18 19.20 O.91 1800 I Mo 1975 1630 18 21 0.77 2200 I W 2140 2265 18 22 040 2400 5

Jan 1, 1970

By David Reger

ONLY a few small pools of oil were found in West Virginia during 1924. The price of oil was so low that there was no incentive for active effort toward the discovery of new pools or the exploitation of reasonably certain productive areas. At present, several encouraging edge-pool developments are being held in reserve in the hope that a more favorable market is not far distant. In the old pools, wells are being carefully tended; there being little tendency toward abandonment. even in cases where production is temporarily unprofitable. In natural gas, however, the total value of which at the well mouth is now more than that of oil, the year has been busy and profitable. , The decline of old pools, together with the increasing demand, has caused the large operators who carry their gas to the consumer to make great efforts to preserve or increase the rate of production; while the small operators, who sell their product to the large companies at the well mouth, have been stimulated toward the same effort by more favorable prices. These conditions brought about the completion of a greater number .of gas wells in 1924 than in 1923. Few pools of gas have been discovered during the year, the principal production having been obtained in old areas and in the unusually large new territory that was revealed as potentially productive by the drilling of 1923. Some of these latter areas are still without pipelines but definite plans for getting most of this gas are now being executed.

Jan 3, 1925

By Joseph Daniels

IN connection with a study of the feasibility of establishing a blast-furnace industry in the Puget Sound region of Washington, possible sources of ore supplies along the Pacific rim were investigated. Many of the South American countries are known to contain important resources of iron, particularly Brazil and Chile. This latter country, because of its position on the west coast and the easy accessibility of its de- posits, appeared to be a logical place to consider as a potential supply for the Pacific Northwest. Accordingly, a brief field study was made of the deposits in September, 1924. Attention was confined to a limited number of properties on the west coast in the provinces of Antofagasta, Atacama, and Coquimbo. Passing consideration was given to the question of coal resources, and a short visit was made to a blast-funace plant at Corral in southern Chile which had been operated for a limited period as a producer of pig iron. In the following paper, a brief outline is given of the general observations made and of the salient facts rioted in the time available for the general study.

Jan 1, 1926

By C. R. Wohrman

A MELT of pure electrolytic iron with about 0.4 per cent. sulfur and 7 per cent. manganese was prepared in connection with a study of inclusions in iron. The alloy darkened rapidly when etched with a 10 per cent. alcoholic solution of nitric acid, and microscopic examination revealed the presence of a semimartensitic, semi-Widmanstättian structure (Figs. 1 and 2) closely resembling the structures found by Benedicks in his artificially prepared "meteoric iron." 1 The structures found by Benedicks were readily explained by the presence in his alloy of the two well known iron-nickel solid solutions, taenite and kamacite, and of their eutectoid (?) aggregate, plessite. By analogy, one would infer the existence of similar phases in the iron-manganese alloy just described, such as inference being strengthened by the similarity displayed in many ways by nickel and manganese in their effects on iron. IRON-MANGANESE ALLOTS ARE REGARDED AS HOMOGENEOUS Heterogeneity of iron-manganese alloys has not been recognized heretofore, judging from the data of standard metallographic books and those of original papers. In fact, iron and manganese are quite generally regarded as completely miscible in the solid state. Dr. Rosenhain,2 for example, writes: Alloys of group (a), of which those of gold-silver, iron-manganese, and copper-nickel are examples, when allowed to crystallize sufficiently slowly to attain their condition of final equilibrium, present a microstructure exactly similar to that of a pure metal-the homogeneous character of the molten solution is in that case so completely maintained that the microscope cannot detect the presence of any second constituent.

Jan 1, 1927

By AIME AIME

THE official opening at the 134th general meeting of the Institute was held on Oct. 6, but it was prefaced by two round table conferences on Oct. 5. The open-hearth group held the fourth of their semi-annual conferences at the William Penn Hotel, devoting the morning session to discussing a paper by R. L. Cain on the "Manufacture of Forging Steel by the Open-hearth Process," and the afternoon to discussing P. H. Shaeffer&apos;s paper on the open-hearth charge. At the Bureau of Mines, a round table conference on the combustibility of coke was held on Tuesday morning, and the afternoon was devoted to a similar conference on the testing of coke. The formal opening session of the meeting assembled in the Music Hall of Carnegie Institute at 10.30 a. m. Graham Bright, chairman of the Pittsburgh Section; called the meeting to order and presided. President Taylor welcomed the visiting members and guests to his home city and reviewed briefly the advancement of mining in the past half century during which, for ex- ample, the coal output had increased from 53,280,000 tons to 523,357,000 tons per year. He emphasized the important part Pennsylvania played in mining and brought out the principal changes that had taken place in methods. In part, his remarks were as follows: The centennial year, 1876, found the coal business of. this country, as a whole, producing 53,280,000 tons, of which amount the bituminous mines of this State yielded 24 per cent. In 1925, this country produced 523,357,000 tons of coal, of which Pennsylvania produced 24 per cent.

Jan 1, 1926

By R. H. Wightman, G. H. ADAM

In order to secure good results in the prevention of accidents, it is generally recognized that the desire for such accomplishment, as well as the aggressive and constructive action to achieve it, must emanate from the Top Management and permeate successively down through the "Chart of Authority" to the workmen. Several years ago, with the above as a basis and with full support of the Top Management, the Mining Department started a program of selling the foremen and bosses the idea that safety could be achieved and that it was desired and required. Using psychology, persistence and numerous other methods, the foremen and bosses were finally impressed with the idea that "It can be done" and "It will be done." With this in mind, new ideas were brought forth by the foremen and bosses regarding the caving operation and the specific jobs in the operation. These new ideas were taken up in round-table discussions and resulted in certain changes in the undercutting method and the actual drawing of the blocks. These changes resulted in increasing fragmentation of the blocks which prevented the usual hang-up areas in the blocks. With the rock smaller in size and within reasonable reach from the tapping drifts, accidents were prevented in the tapping section. At the same time, an enforced campaign of housekeeping throughout the mine was undertaken with very beneficial results. The foremen and bosses then, in turn, educated and trained the workers themselves to become safely conscious. In so doing, a constant re- minder was given on all jobs assigned that the job was to be done safely as well as efficiently. No man is assigned a job who is not qualified for the type of work required. Efficiency and safety go hand in hand.

Jan 1, 1949