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By P. H. Turnock, R. D. Pehlke

The effects of mutual interactions between elements on the solubility of nitrogen in liquid iron alloys containing chrormium, columbium, molybdenurn, nickel, or silicon have been determined. The equilibrium nitrogen solubilities in the liquid iron alloys were measured by the Sieverts method. The second-order effects caused by the presence of chrormium, columbium , or silicon in the melt were found to be significant. The solubility of nitrogen in liquid iron alloys containing several alloying elements has also been measured as a function of melt temperature and nitrogen pressure. The heat of solution of nitrogen in microcomponent iron alloys has been found to be a function of the logarithnz of the activity coefficient of nitrogen, irrvespectilje of the composition of the melt. The heat of solution of nitrogen in pure liquid iron was determined to be 1265 ± 450 cal per g-atom of N over the temperatxue range 1600° to 1800°. Sieverts ' law was obeyed for all melt compositions studied in the pressure interval 0.4 to 1.0 atm. The solubility of nitrogen in liquid pure iron and in many dilute binary liquid-iron alloys has been the subject of many investigations. Pehlke and Elliott' made a comprehensive investigation on this subject in which they summarized and compared previous researches. However, the practical application of these solubility studies requires prediction of the nitrogen solubility in the multicomponent alloys encountered in operating practice. The interaction parameter as defined by wagner2 has been used to predict the behavior of a solute in a complex alloy, and a modification of this approach has met with reasonable success in several instances.'1"5 The necessity for extending the nitrogen solubility data on binary alloys is caused by the lack of direct measurements of the solubility of nitrogen in molten alloy steels. A direct comparison between measured solubilities and those predicted for multicomponent alloys based on data in binary systems has been made in only a few instances, and most of these were reviewed by Langenberg,6 who developed a graphical technique for predicting nitrogen solubilities in multicomponent iron alloys. The solubility of nitrogen has also been studied over the entire Fe-Cr-Ni ternary system by Humbert and Elliott.? Both studies compared the solubilities computed from binary iron alloy data with those measured in ternary alloys in the liquid state at 1600°C. Most of the nitrogen solubility measurements referred to above were for iron alloys at 1600°C; thus, the ability to predict nitrogen solubilities in molten iron alloys has been restricted primarily to alloys at 1600°C. Recently, Nelsson8 devised an approximate method for calculating the change in nitrogen solubility in molten iron alloys as a function of temperature, but an assumption of regular solution behavior limits the applicability of the method. Chipman and Corrigan9,10 have developed an empirical correlation. based on the activity coefficient of nitrogen in the iron alloy at 1600°C, which facilitates the estimation of nitrogen solubilities at higher temperatures. This method also has limitations, due to the necessity of calculating the activity coefficient for nitrogen in a multicomponent iron alloy at 1600°C from the nitrogen solubility data for binary iron alloys. The shortcoming of such a straightforward approach to the problem of predicting nitrogen solubilities is the disregard of mutual interactions between elements in a complex iron melt. This investigation was conducted in an attempt to provide a more reliable method of predicting nitrogen solubilities in multicomponent iron alloys. The effects of the mutual interactions between chromium, nickel, silicon, molybdenum, or columbium in iron were studied, using the Sieverts' technique1,7 to measure the effects of alloy composition, temperature, and pressure on the solubility of nitrogen in ternary liquid iron alloys.

Jan 1, 1967

By M. R. J. Wyllie, Walter D. Rose

The use of electrical well logs for the quantitative determination of such reservoir parameters as connate water saturation, formation permeability and connate water salinity has recently been attracting the attention of a number of workers1,2,3,4,5. While the theory of the determination of connate water salinity from the self potential S.P. log has received rather detailed treatment, relatively little attention has been paid to the theoretical aspects involved in the quantitative interpretation of resistivity data. It is clear that if electrical well logs can be used for the quantitative evaluation of physical characteristics of reservoir rock, they will provide a valuable tool to supplement cheaply information obtained by more laborious core analysis. In certain cases it is conceivable that the coring program could be considerably curtailed if the electric log could be relied upon to give reasonably accurate quantitative information. It is our object in this paper to examine the theoretical basis of quantitative log interpretation as expressed in such well-established logging concepts as formation factor and cementation factor. It is also our object to investigate the physical aspects of the rela- tionship which is presumed to exist between resistivity index and brine saturation in reservoir rock. In particular, we will endeavor to draw attention to the fact that it is possible to express these logging concepts in terms of capillary pressure-saturation relationships, permeability and tortuosity, parameters which we will consider in this paper to be fundamentally indicative of rock texture. The probability of being able to obtain from log recordings alone the data theoretically essential to permit quantitative log interpretatiou will be examined, and consideration will also be given to the problem of formulating simple semi-empirical relationships for use in the field. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS The concept of formation resistivity factor, or as it is now commonly called, formation factor, appears to have been introduced by G. E. Archie",". Formation resistivity factor as defined by Archie is the resistivity of a rock 100 per cent brine-saturated divided by the resistivity of the brine. This relationship had previously been used by physical chemists and the concept is, for example, implicit in an early treatment by Fricke7 of the conductivity of aqueous slurries. Archie was able to establish the fact that although the relationship between formation factor and porosity did not change too greatly for different rock textures, the relationship between formation factor and permeability was markedly dependent on rock texture. The relationship found by Archie between formation factor and porosity was expanded by H. Guyod8. Archie had suggested that the formation factor, F, could be expressed in terms of the porosity, F, as follows: F =F-m .... (11 where, F = effective porosity fraction of the sand, and, m = an exponent greater than about 1.3. Guyod introduced the term cementation factor for the exponent, m, since it may be qualitatively shown that formation factor for any given porosity tends to increase as the sand becomes more cemented. It would appear that the concept of m as an exponent representing the cementation in a sand is strictly only of qualitative value, since the quantitative estimation of m by means other than the determination of F and F has not been possible. Guyod suggests that m can be estimated from a visual examination of a sample of rock, but this method appears to be both arbitrary and unreliable. It can be said, however, that in intergranular reservoirs of practical interest, the range of m is from about 1.4 to 3.0. A possible explanation for the fact that m is found to lie between these limits will be offered below. The determination of formation factor is an essential preliminary to the

Jan 1, 1950

By D. C. Hilty, W. Crafts

A qualitative pseudoternary solidification diagram for the Fe-S-O system modified by manganese is proposed and supported by experimental derivation of an isothermal section at 1475°C and substantially 1 pct Mn in the solid-metal phase. The solubility of oxygen in liquid iron containing 1 pct Mn and sulphur contents up to 0.9 pct has been measured at 1600°C and found to increase as the sulphur content exceeds 0.15 pct. AS has been pointed out previously,' all oxide and sulphide inclusions in steel, excluding mechanically entrained matter, result from modifications of the basic Fe-S-O system. Therefore, one method of attack on the problem of the mechanism of deoxida-tion and inclusion formation is to examine the influence of deoxidizers on the Fe-S-O liquidus diagram. This approach has been adopted in work on the subject being carried out at the Metals Research Laboratories of the Electro Metallurgical Co. and has resulted in the postulation of types of solidification diagrams for the Fe-S-O system modified with common deoxidizers. This method has been of considerable assistance in interpretation of the factors affecting the formation of inclusions.' For the most part, however, these diagrams have been highly speculative. They were constructed primarily by inference from the pertinent binary and ternary systems and from the appearance of inclusions produced by specific deoxidizers. Moreover, since the systems contain four or more components, simplifying assumptions and qualifications were necessary in order to permit their representation as modifications of the Fe-S-O diagram. Consequently, experimental confirmation of the type of construction employed for these diagrams is desirable, and the present paper is concerned with such evidence. The addition of manganese to the Fe-S-O system was selected for initial investigation. Manganese is an important component of practically all steel and is, therefore, of fundamental interest. Because of its great affinity for sulphur, manganese has a more profound effect on the sulphide side of the Fe-S-O diagram than any of the other common deoxidizing eletments. In addition, more quantitative information pertaining to the contiguous binary and ternary systems involving iron, manganese, sulphur, and oxygen is available than for the other deoxidizers. Fe(Mn)-S-O Solidification Diagram Many of the side diagrams of interest in connection with this system are known. The Fe-Mn binary has been well established by several investigators;% the Fe-O system has been clarified by Darken and Gurry;' and FeO-MnO diagrams have been published by Herty,5 Andrew, Maddocks, and Howat,6 and by Hay, Howat, and White.7 The Mn-O diagram does not appear to have been derived experimentally, but the portion of 'it that is of interest can be visualized easily from a consideration of the melting points of Mn and MnO and the fact that a broad miscibility gap must exist between them. The ternary Fe-Mn-O diagram has been discussed by Benedicks and Löfquist,8 Wentrup,9 and by Körber and Oelsen.10 Experimental study of the Fe-Mn-O system has been carried out by Körber and Oelsen and to a lesser degree by Chipman, Gero, and Winkler,11 Hilty and Crafts," and others. On the basis of published information, then, an outline of the Fe-Mn-O liquidus diagram can be constructed as illustrated by Fig. 1. In this, as in all succeeding diagrams, transformations such as the ?-? reaction in iron have been ignored for purposes of simplification. The arrows denote falling temperature. The distinguishing feature of this diagram is the broad region of liquid immiscibility extending

Jan 1, 1955

By P. R. PaeIay, A. Slibar

Using three-dimensional, stress-deformation rate equations for a Bingham plastic, an approximate solution for the laminar flow of drilling mud between the drill pipe and casing is given for the case when the velocity gradients due to axial flow are large compared to velocity gradients due to rotation. INTRODUCTION The fact that drilling mud can be treated, to a first approximation, as a Bingham plastic has been established by several investigators12,3,4,5. A Bingham plastic is a material that is rigid until a certain combination of stresses exceeds a critical value. When the stresses are sufficiently high to initiate flow, the reduced stresses have a constant ratio to the corresponding deformation rates at each point. Prediction of pressure and torque requirements to produce the desired flow of the material have been made by analytical solutions due to Bingham6, Reiner7, and Buckingham8. One part of the present means of calculation that requires clarification is the flow between the drill pipe and casing. Present methods treat the flow resulting from the rotation of the drill pipe separate from the flow produced by the axial pressure gradient. Since the non-linear behavior of a Bingham plastic implies that solutions cannot be superposed, the present analytical investigation was undertaken to obtain a solution to the problem of combined axial and tangential flow. Equations have been proposed for the three-dimensional flow of a Bingham plastic9,10,11 and it has been shown that the proposed equations lead to the usual solutions from the one-dimensional theory". Applying these equations to the flow between two concentric cylinders the problem of axial flow only13 and tangential flow only12 have been solved. In addition to the separate problems of axial and tangential flow between concentric cylinders, the authors have determined the relationship between external torque on the inside cylinder and axial pressure gradient necessary to initiate flow". The solution given in Ref. 14 points out the complexity of the present problem. The problem considered here is the case of simultaneous axial and tangential flow. The axial flow, necessary to keep the drill bit free of removed material, results from the axial pressure gradient. Tangential flow is present since the drill pipe rotates in the hole. The solution given here is valid when the shear stresses in the drilling mud due to rotation are small compared to the shear stresses resulting from the axial flow. This case for laminar flow can be encountered in oilfield drilling. STRESS-DEFORMATION RATE EQUATIONS A detailed derivation of the equations governing the behavior of a Bingham plastic is given in Ref. 10. This section briefly outlines the physical reasoning leading to this three-dimensional formulation of the stress-deforma-tion rate law. Experiments on a certain class of materials have demonstrated the following properties: (1) when a certain combination of the stresses is below a critical value no deformation of the material occurs, (2) to a first approximation this combination of stresses is independent of the hydrostatic pressure (negative average normal stress), (3) if flow occurs the ratio of the reduced stress to the corresponding deformation rate is constant at each point of the flowing material, and (4) incom-pressibility. For the one dimensional case of shear deformation, Bingham6 formulated the governing equation as dxx, = 0 for sxx < to and µdxx = s xx = to for sxx to , . where dxx is the shear deformation rate, sxx the shear stress, to the critical shear stress, and p the slope of the sxx vs dxx curve for dxx > 0. Fig. 1 shows the behavior for pure shear between two parallel plates. Taking into account the physical properties given above and assuming the critical combination of stresses to be measured by the octahedral shear stress, the fol-lowing three-dimensional equations have been proposed.

Jan 1, 1958

By F. J. Fayers, J. W. Sheldon

A theoretical discussion is presented of the behavior of the interface between two fluids of different physical properties when displacement is occurring along a thin tilted bed. An approximate equation of motion is deduced for the motion of the interface, suitable boundary conditions are derived and the conditions necessary for the approximation to be valid are determined. Steady-state behavior and the circumstances under which a steady-state interface can develop are discussed. Finite-difference solutions of the equation of motion for two characteristic water-drive problems are presenled. The theory of displacement in a thin bed may be regarded as being the porous-medium-equivalent of the classical "shallow-water wave" theory of hydrodynamics. INTRODUCTION The solution of moving interface problems are important in predicting the behavior of oil reservoirs under various conditions of production. Kidder4,5 has obtained analytic solutions for the fingering problem and for another particular case of the motion of the interface between two immiscible fluids of unequal density in a porous medium. In the present analysis, we analyze the problem of the motion of an interface along a slightly dipping bed whose length is long compared with its thickness. The requirement of a thin bed is necessary in order to give a simple differential equation for the motion. The two fluids are of unequal density and mobility. In the derivation of the equation of motion, it is assumed that the lighter fluid is being injected at constant rate at the high end of the porous layer, while heavy fluid is produced at the low end of the layer. The analysis applies equally well, however, to the reverse procedure in which the heavier fluid is injected at the low end of the tilted layer. It will be shown that the behavior of the system is critically dependent on which fluid has the higher mobility and that the interface can in certain circumstances achieve a simple progressive steady-state shape. The fluids may be considered to be immiscible or miscible. It is assumed, however, that the thickness of the interface region is negligible in comparison with other dimensions of the system, and that the strength of the saturation or concentration discontinuity remains constant during the motion. In conjunction with Buckley-Leverett theory and areal sweep-out calculations, the tilted interface problem is one of the fundamental problems of reservoir engineering; it defines the very important underpassing and overpassing phenomena associated with water-drives, gas-drives and secondary recovery operations. The tilted interface problem has been dealt with previously by Dietz.2 In the present paper, we endeavor to derive the pertinent mathematical results more rigorously, and in doing so we obtain modifications in both the differential equation and boundary conditions for those given by Dietz. We also attempt to show the connection between these results and some of the recent work on the stability of interfaces. Finally, we attempt to demonstrate the practical importance of the thin bed theory by showing the difference in behavior of two characteristic waterflood problems. In the favorable mobility case recovery is improved by increasing production rate, while in the unfavorable case undercutting or overcutting is minimized by reducing the displacement rate. PROPERTIES OF THE EQUATION OF MOTION Fig. 1 illustrates a porous layer of constant thickness H and tilt 8 with Fluid 1 of mobility ?l and density pl below Fluid 2 of mobility ?2 and density p2. The fluids are incompressible and flowing with volumetric flux q along the layer. Both the slope a of the interface with respect to the bed and the curvature of the interface are assumed to be small. What is meant by "small" is indicated in the derivation given in Appendix A of an approximate equation of motion for the interface. Other symbols are defined in the "Nomen-

By C. Schlumberger

SINCE the beginning of .the year 1928 the senior authors and their associates have applied a series of procedures which makes possible the detailed study in situ of the formations traversed by a drill hole before the casing has been landed. They have given the name "electrical coring" to the ensemble of these processes, which now replace in a large measure the mechanical coring performed by the drillers, and permit the gathering of bottom-hole data hitherto unobtainable. Three years have elapsed since the technique and interpretation of these measurements emerged from the experimental stage and entered the field of industrial application on a large scale. The total length of drill holes so far surveyed by the authors and their associates, all over the world, amounts to several millions of feet. Practical and strongly built equipment has been evolved, which permits the examination in a short time of an open hole several thousand feet long. No comprehensive paper has yet been published discussing the essential principles of the processes applied and bringing into evidence their economic interest. This is the object of the present paper.1 Numerous examples of field work performed under varied geological conditions are given, constituting a concrete illustration of the services rendered by the new methods. The study in situ of the formations penetrated by a drill hole is based on the measurement of a given physical factor or parameter associated with these formations. Generally. the measurements are made syste-matically along the whole length of the open hole. The physical factors or parameters which are now utilized by us to this end are: (1) the resistivities of the rocks; (2) their porosity; (3) their electrical anisotropy; (4) their temperature; (5) the resistivity of the muds. In order to

Jan 1, 1932

The following list comprises the names of those persons who became members during the period of Mar. 10, 1918, to Apr. 10, 1918. ADAMS, NOAH- :.. Geol.,. E. N. Gillespie & Co., Box 1875, Tulsa, Okla. ALVAREZ, PEDRO Asst. Met., American Smelt. & Refin. Co., Blue Hill, Maine. BARTRAM, JOHN G., Pet. Geol., Roxana Petroleum Co. of Oklahoma, Cheyenne, Wyo. CHANEY, S. E Supt.., Arizona Binghamton Copper Co., Stoddard, Ariz. CLEVELAND, EARL C Mgr., Deadwood Min. Co., Mogollon, N. M. DENNIS, HOWARD B Min. Engr., Empire Mines, Grass Valley, Cal. FOWLER, ARTHUR A., Partner, Rogers, Brown &- Co., 30 Church St., New York, N. Y. FRIEDMAN, L. A Pres. and Gen&apos;l Mgr., Rochester Mines Co., Lovelock, Nev. GUIBERSON, S. ALLEN, JR 923-24 1. N. Van Nuys Bldg., Los Angeles, Cal. KROHN, ARTHUR Mine Supt., Missouri Metal Corpn., Mine La Motte, Mo. KURSELL, H. A., Mgr., Altai Mines Ltd., Zmeinogorsk, Altai Gov&apos;t, Siberia, Russia. LANE, L. RAY Mine Examinations, Galiano 24, Aptd. 1066, Havana, Cuba.

Jan 5, 1918

By D. B. Smith, John Chipman

THIS investigation was undertaken as a prerequisite to the study of sulphur activities in the liquid system Fe-Cu-Ni, a continuation of the work of Sherman, Elvander, and Chipman,¹ using the same equipment and the same experimental technique. Temperature measurements are made with a disappearing filament optical pyrometer, sighting through a prism onto the surface of the melt which is heated by induction. To obtain true temperatures by this means, a calibration is necessary, since, in the absence of true black-body conditions, the observed temperature is always lower than the true temperature. This calibration is actually an emissivity correction, since the emissivity is a function of both temperature and melt composition. The original furnace was used with a deeper metal bath to provide sufficient depth of immersion for the thermocouple which was inserted through the sampling hole. The atmosphere was a 50-50 mixture or argon and hydrogen passing through the furnace at a rate of 1000 ml per min, and preheated by means of a molybdenum resistance coil. It was assumed that the rapid gas flow effectively eliminated any error which might have resulted from the presence of metallic vapor. The charge in each case consisted of about 300 g of metal, contained in a high purity, dense alumina crucible. At each melt composition, readings of the optical pyrometer and of a thermocouple immersed in the molten metal were taken simultaneously. Calibration curves of optical vs. true temperature were then made for each melt composition investigated. Thermocouples were made of 0.010 in. platinum and platinum-10 pct rhodium. They were checked against the melting point of chemically pure copper. Silica protection tubes with an outer diameter of approximately 1/8 in. were used. The depth of immersion of the tip in the molten metal was approximately 1 14 in. The life of these small thermocouples was relatively short, varying from approximately 1 min at 1550°C to 10 min or longer at 1300°C. Melts containing iron corroded the protection tubes more than those without iron present. Measurements taken while heating checked those taken while cooling, indicating the absence of a temperature gradient between the molten metal and the thermocouple. Results The temperature range of the. measurements on copper-free metals extended from the melting point to 1600°C. For copper the upper limit was 1380°C, and the data were extrapolated linearly for comparison with observations on the other metals and alloys at 1535°C. Examples of typical calibration curves for various melt compositions are shown in Fig. 1. These curves, besides providing a calibration system for the given experimental conditions, also give a basis for the calculation of true emissivities at the effective wavelength of the pyrometer, 0.65 micron. The starting point of the calculations is the value of the emissivity of iron at its melting point. Taking the melting point of electrolytic iron under hydrogen as 1535°C, and using the corresponding emissivity value of 0.43, as determined by Dastur and Gokcen,² the emissivities can be determined as functions of composition (and temperature, if desired). The relationship used is the Wien equation: ln(Ea)=C2/?(1/T1-1/Ta where E is the emissivity; a, the transmissivity of the optical system; C,, the fundamental constant, 14,380 micron-degrees; A, the wave length of light used (0.65 micron); Tt, the true temperature, OK; and T., the apparent temperature, OK. At the melting point of iron the observed temperature was 1358"; this gives 0.62 for the transmissivity, which compares with 0.65 in the similar system used by Dastur and Gokcen. The emissivities of all the compositions investigated were determined at 1535°C, after obtaining from each calibration curve the corresponding temperature. These results

Jan 1, 1953

By C. Schlumberger

SINCE the, beginning of the year 1928 the senior authors and their associates have applied a series of procedures which makes possible the detailed study in situ of the formations traversed by a drill hole before the casing has been landed. They have given the name "electrical coring" to the ensemble of these processes, which now replace in a large measure the mechanical coring performed by the drillers, and permit the gathering of bottom-hole data hitherto unobtainable. Three years have elapsed since the technique and interpretation of these measurements emerged from the experimental stage and entered the field of industrial application on a large scale. The total length of drill holes so far surveyed by the authors and their associates, all over the world, amounts to several millions of feet. Practical and strongly built equipment has been evolved, which permits the examination in a short time of an open hole several thousand feet long. No comprehensive paper has yet been published discussing the essential principles of the processes applied and bringing into evidence their economic interest. This is the object of the present paper.1 Numerous examples of field work performed under varied geological conditions are given, constituting a concrete illustration of the services rendered by the new methods.

Jan 1, 1932

By W. S. Keyes

(Read at the Amenia Meeting, October, 1877.) EASTERN NEVADA. THE State of Nevada, known par excellence as "the Silver State," occupies the major portion of the wide plateau, or so-called Great Basin, lying between the Sierra Nevada range on the west and the Wahsatch range of the Rocky Mountains on the east. It extends from the 114th degree to the 120th degree of longitude, west of Greenwich. It is limited, on the north, by the 42d degree of latitude, and on the extreme south by the 35th degree of latitude. Its general shape is that of an irregular parallelogram, from which the lower or southwestern portion has been cut off by a diagonal southeasterly line; the missing portion forms a part of the State of California on the west. The Great Basin is made up of a succession of low hills, or minor mountain ranges, running very nearly north and south, with long valleys between them. All of these mountains are more or less metalliferous. On the western rim, marking the eastern flank or foothills of the Sierra, we find granites, porphyries, and propylites. Here we note the great Comstock lode, with its free-milling gold and silver ores, and still further south the once prominent and the now reviving gold and silver-bearing districts of Esmeralda County, Nevada, and of Morro County, California. Next, at some distance to the east, we find the mining districts at and near Unionville, in Humboldt County. Still further to the east we find the Battle Mountain copper-silver district, north from the railroad, and southerly therefrom the Austin or Reese River, Belmont, and other districts. Still further east and north of the railroad, we find the Tuscarora, a new district of very

Jan 1, 1878

By AIME AIME

FRIEND recently remarked that the career of Scott Turner is characterized by Work and Wild -A Ducks. To these might be added Accomplishment and Persistent Fishing. All of these elements are manifestations of his character. The diversions-hunting and fishing-are in the nature of the proverbial trolley conductor&apos;s holiday, for many of Turner&apos;s years have been spent in the outdoors, often in distant lands, as in Spitzbergen, where the ducks pictured below were bagged. The election of Scott Turner to the presidency of the Institute marks the culmination of a quarter century of membership, during the last two years of which he has been vice-president. He was born at Lansing, Mich., on July 31, 1880, and received his A.B. at the University of Michigan in 1902, with a B.S. and E.M. at the Michigan College of Mines in 1904. Since then he has been granted two honorary degrees, D.Sc. from the Colorado School of Mines, and D.Eng. from the University of Michigan, but he still prefers to be called "Scott" rather than "Doctor." Government service was not a new experience for Turner when he was appointed Director of the U. S. Bureau of Mines by Secretary Hoover in 1925, for his first employment after graduation was as Field Assistant in the U. S. Geological Survey in Oregon and Idaho. This was followed by work in Tombstone, Ariz.; then his first foreign engagement in 1905-6 as superintendent of the San Pablo Gold Mining Co. in Panama. Various field experiences followed, though there was an interlude in work of a kind that few mining engineers ever experience. This was in technical journalism, for in 1906 he was

Jan 1, 1932

To the members of the A. I. M. E., who have given much and risked all to fight "Over There" with pick, or gun, or brain, and to the members who have chosen the sometimes more self-denying duty of remaining at home to help produce metals for fighters: Your experience in foreign lands has bred in you that spirit of internationalism which will soon be infused into every corner of our country by virile lads thrilling from a great experience in an old, yet new, land over the seas. To them the East will not seem as far from the West as it was, nor the North from the South. Sectional jealousies will seen despicable to one who has fought for a great ideal shoulder to shoulder with real men of other nations. And they who have willingly sacrificed much on the altar of service will have little patience with an egotist, be he laborer, tradesman, capitalist or engineer. The problems which peace brings to us are more difficult than those of war and their solution requires not only cool heads, tolerance, and wise judgment, but the "getting together" of sections and classes and individuals. The triumph of justice over individualism, represented by the draft law, must be repeated, for there are "slackers" in peace Is well as in war, and the spirit of self-denial expressed in response to Liberty Loans, Red Cross, and Welfare drives and Food Administration appeals must live. We have only just begun to learn how to serve. It is often claimed by our members that the engineer is not given, in the community at large, the recognition which his training should merit; that his reward is not as great nor his service as welcome as it should be. Public service is generally assumed to be a logical activity for a lawyer,

Jan 12, 1918

By Clarence Zener

Theoretical considerations by one of the authors have ledl to the prediction that the dynamic internal friction of annealed metals has a broad maximum at a certain grain size. This prediction they have verified2 for alpha brass. In the present paper the theory is extended to include the precise manner in which the internal friction varies with grain size on either side of the maximum. New experimental data are presented to test this extended theory. The physical basis for the type of internal friction that is being investigated lies in the interplay between stress and temperature. Just as local fluctuations in temperature give rise to local fluctuations in stress, so likewise fluctuations in stress give rise to fluctuations in temperature. But temperature gradients give rise to necessarily irreversible thermal currents, and hence to internal friction. The theory for this type of internal friction has been developed quantitatively,³ and has been experimentally verified,4,5 for the particularly simple case of the transverse thermal currents accompanying transverse vibrations. Of more fundamental importance are the intercrystalline thermal currents accompanying all types of vibration. The variation in stress across grain boundaries arises from the elastic anisotropy and at least partial random orientation of the individual crystallites. An exact quantitative treatment of the internal friction due to these thermal currents is of course out of the question. However, much information can be obtained from general arguments.1,6 Thus when the frequency of vibration f is low, or when the grain size d is small, adjacent grains remain nearly in thermal equilibrium, and vibration proceeds isothermally with little internal friction. Again, when the frequency is high, or the grain size large, the heat flow per cycle is small, the vibration proceeds adiabatically with little internal friction. The internal friction will become a maximum in the transition region. The degree of adiabatic-

Jan 1, 1940

By Clarence Zener

Theoretical considerations by one of the authors have ledl to the prediction that the dynamic internal friction of annealed metals has a broad maximum at a certain grain size. This prediction they have verified2 for alpha brass. In the present paper the theory is extended to include the precise manner in which the internal friction varies with grain size on either side of the maximum. New experimental data are presented to test this extended theory. The physical basis for the type of internal friction that is being investigated lies in the interplay between stress and temperature. Just as local fluctuations in temperature give rise to local fluctuations in stress, so likewise fluctuations in stress give rise to fluctuations in temperature. But temperature gradients give rise to necessarily irreversible thermal currents, and hence to internal friction. The theory for this type of internal friction has been developed quantitatively,³ and has been experimentally verified,4,5 for the particularly simple case of the transverse thermal currents accompanying transverse vibrations. Of more fundamental importance are the intercrystalline thermal currents accompanying all types of vibration. The variation in stress across grain boundaries arises from the elastic anisotropy and at least partial random orientation of the individual crystallites. An exact quantitative treatment of the internal friction due to these thermal currents is of course out of the question. However, much information can be obtained from general arguments.1,6 Thus when the frequency of vibration f is low, or when the grain size d is small, adjacent grains remain nearly in thermal equilibrium, and vibration proceeds isothermally with little internal friction. Again, when the frequency is high, or the grain size large, the heat flow per cycle is small, the vibration proceeds adiabatically with little internal friction. The internal friction will become a maximum in the transition region. The degree of adiabatic-

Jan 1, 1940

By Howard S. Bryant

The year 1928 has recently.passed from the picture and it is at this time that the various divisions of the oil industry are giving thought to plans for the present year. The outstanding characteristic of the industry in 1928 was the successful curtailment of oil production to the market&apos;s needs. It has been thought advisable to look ahead and endeavor to anticipate the oil demand for the coming year, and thus determine the volume of oil that can be safely produced without causing major additions to surface stocks. The year has been one of smaller additions to stocks than in 1927, a record demand for oil products, and a further developed spirit of cooperation among oil producers, as well as various other achievements. It is well to pause and take stock of ourselves. Present Status of Crude Oil Supply and Demand The total daily new supply of oil is at this time1 about 2,960,000 bbl. per day, made up of 2,585,000 bbl. domestic crude production, 125,000 bbl. casinghead gasoline, and 250,000 bbl. of imports. With the present low consumption, due to the falling off in the winter season demand, it is estimated that about 150,000 bbl. a day are now being run to storage, and that the first three months in 1929 will see large-sized additions to storage. Consumption plus exports of oil have increased at a regular rate from year to year, and although oil production in 1928 passed the 1,000,000,-000 bbl. mark for the second time in the history of the United States, with a production of 25,000,000 bbl. more than in 1927, only 30,000,000 bbl. were added to storage during 1928. This is compared to an addition of 65,500,000 bbl. in 1927.

Jan 1, 1929

NEW MEMBERS The following list comprises the names of those persons who became members during the period May 10 to June 10, 1914. Members ABE, ASAKA, Chief Min. Engr., Yamagano Gold Mine, Satsuma-Gori, Satsuma, Japan. ANDERSON, FRANK M., Geol Cartagena Refining Co., Cartagena, Colombia, S. A. BACON, MAURICE W., Genl. Mgr Stewart Mining Co. Butte, Mont. BACON, RAYMOND F., Chem Director, Mellon Institute, Pittsburg, Pa. BAKER, HAMILTON WALLACE, Min. Engr Fernley, Nev. VON BAYER, AUGUST HECTOR, Supt Kentucky Solvay, Coke Co., Ashland, Ky. BISHOP, WHEELER SCOTT, Research Chem Care Braden Copper Co., Rancagua, Chile, S. A. BOWEN, CHARLES GILMAN, Timekeeper 208 School St., Grass Valley, Cal. BOYER, SAMUEL L., Mine Operator, Mgr., Mike. Horse Min. Co., W. 2808 Boone Ave., Spokane. Wash.

Jan 7, 1914

NEW MEMBERS The following list comprises the names of those persons who became members during the period Oct. 10 to Nov. 10, 1914: Members ADDAMS, CHARLES EDWARD, Asst. Supt.. . Ray Consolidated Copper Co., Ray, Ariz. ALEXANDER, HARRY H., Asst. Mgr. and Mgr., American Smelting & Refining Co., Maurer, N. J. ALLING, MARK,N., Min Engr Downieville, Sierra Co., Cal. ANDERSON, LESLIE DOUGLASS, Supt U. S. Smelting Co., Midvale, Utah. ATKINS, WILLIAM, JR., Sec&apos;y Kingwood Coal Co., Howesville, W. Va. BLAKE, TRUE WALTER, Min. Engr Rombauer Coal Co., Novinger, Mo. BRACKETT, GEORGE SYLVESTER, Supt... Pittsvein Coal Co., Flemington, W. Va. BRAINERD, HOWARD STANFORD, Met Ingersoll-Rand Co., Phillipsburg, N. J. BROWN, THOMAS J., Genl. Supt., Nova Scotia Steel & Coal Co., Sydney Mines, N. S., Canada.

Jan 12, 1914

By W. W. Coffeen, K. E. Doud

A singular mineral extraction and processing operation is conducted by Metal & Thermit Corp. in Hanover County, Va. The mine presently produces aplite rock, rutile and ilmenite. The deposit lies in the piedmont plain about 25 miles northwest of Richmond. It first drew attention as a result of discovery of float rutile on the surface about 1910. About seven years prior to this, Metal & Thermit through a subsidiary. American Rutile Co., had begun producing rutile&apos;and ilmenite from a deposit in Nebon County, near Piney River, where aplite rock and ilmenite are mined today. Because of the interest in titanium minerals and the similarity of the new deposit to the Nelson County deposit, Metal & Thermit became interested and eventually acquired the Hanover County deposit.

Jan 10, 1962

By Roger L. Goin

Maintaining smooth haulage roads is a key to significant cost savings at Kennecott Copper Corp.&apos;s Bing- ham Canyon copper mine, located near Salt Lake City, Utah. The truck operations section of the mine moves an estimated 300,000 tpd of waste plus some ore to maintain a balanced production cycle. A three-year truck replacement program has produced a dramatic new look in both size and capacity of the truck fleet. Currently there are 95 haulage trucks in the Bingham fleet with capacities up to 150 t. The trend towards the larger haulage units places greater importance on overall truck availability. The impact of a 150-t truck being out of service is far more critical than with the former 65 or 85-t units.

Jan 12, 1974

By W. R. Crane

Mining of the red iron ores of the Birmingham district has been carried on energetically during the past 60 years, and their development has created a large iron and steel manufacturing center, the only important one in the South. The district produces approximately 10 per cent. of all the iron ore of the United States (80 per cent. of the Alabama ore mined is red ore); also, 40 of the 400 blast furnaces of the country are in the district tributary to Birmingham. The rapid growth of the district has been made possible through investigations that resulted in radical changes in furnace practice, and a still greater impetus will come from the study of the low-grade, high-silica ores, as a result on which they will be made amenable to treatment by concentration. Mining practice in this district has been comparatively simple because of the occurrence of the ore; but with the rapid extension of the workings and the disturbed condition of the ore bed at some distance from the outcrop, more difficult conditions are encountered and the tendency is toward worse rather than better conditions. Should the high-silica ores of the lower bench of the Big Seam become available through beneficiation, mining practice will have to be modified to meet the new conditions, which will be rendered more difficult by the increased weight of cover that will exist at considerable distances from the outcrop. Support of workings will require greater attention and the efficient and economical operation of the mines will depend largely on the successful solution of the problems of working and handling the ore. History and EaRly Development The first explorers of the coal and mineral lands of Alabama were blacksmiths and mechanics mustered out of the army after the war of 1812. These men recognized the red rock of the Birmingham district as iron ore, and utilized it in making cooking utensils and farm implements. The first blast furnace was built and operated at Russellville in 1818, where also was a foundry and rolling mill. Soft ore was used at that time, but, in 1864, the first red hematite ore of Red Mountain was smelted, near Irondale. Birmingham was founded in 1871, and the successful use of coke in making pig iron in 1876 was the beginning of

Jan 1, 1925