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By L. C. Glenn

In the preparation of this paper the writer has drawn freely upon the writings of Orton, Munn, Shaw, Mather, Miller, Hoeing, St. Clair, Jillson, and others, as well as upon his own personal knowledge of the fields of both states. It is to be regretted that certain data gathered by him and his assistants last fall are not available for publication. Oil in Tennessee A few wells drilled for brine for salt making in Tennessee between 1820 and 1840 obtained oil, but no definite search was made for oil until just after the close of the Civil War. Active drilling was then begun in Overton and counties southwest of it on the eastern half of the Highland Rim. A number of strikes were made at shallow depths in the basal part of the Mississippian but the wells were soon exhausted and abandoned. Drilling was revived, about 1892, when the Spurrier district in Pickett County was developed and was followed by the Riverton district in the same county in 1896. A pipe line was laid from the Wayne County, Ky., fields and about 60,000 bbl. of oil were run before a very heavy slump in the production, a failure to find an extension of the field, and excessive local taxation caused the removal of the pipe line in 1906. There was then no production in Tennessee until the discovery, in 1915, of oil near Oneida, Scott Co., at about 950 ft. (289 m.) in fissures in the Newman or St. Louis limestone. This field, however, soon failed and was abandoned. In 1916, oil was found at Glen Mary, Scott Co., in the Newman limestone at a depth of 1232 ft. (375 m.) A number of wells have since been drilled there, some of which were dry while others, close by, were produccrs. The largest one yielded, at first, about 340 bbl. per day and produced for several months, when it suddenly went dry. Several of the first wells began at 6 or 8 bbl. per day and are still maintaining that output. Production is from a fissured part of the limestone and varies greatly in accordance with the size and extent of the ramification of the

Jan 1, 1921

By Atsushi Watanabe

Japanese Operations Research Committee for Mining Industry is one of the committees in The Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers. Members of the committee are Dowa Mining, Furukawa Mining, Mitsubishi Metal Mining, Mitsui Mining and Smelting, Nippon Mining and Sumitomo Metal Mining. This paper is an annotated summary of study reports of the committee.

Jan 1, 1969

By Roscoe C. Clark, Henry F. Coffer, J. J. Reynolds

A cement slurry lightweight additive has been adapted in the Conoco laboratories for use in oil well cements. This additive makes possible the use of air to lighten oil well cement slurries. Specifically, the additive consists of small clay bubbles of air having sufficient strength to resist crushing by bottom hole pressures. Clay bubble cement slurry weights can be safely reduced to 10 Ibs/gal. In addition, the clay bubbles tend to act as lost circulation materials and to provide a cement texture which should produce good perforating characteristics. Clay bubble cement is relatively impermeable. INTRODUCTION In many areas in Oklahoma, Texas, Wyoming, and California, difficulties are experienced during casing cementing operations with lost returns caused by the high density of the cement slurries. Wells in these areas are ordinarily drilled with 9 to 11 lbs/gal. drilling mud while neat cement slurries may range in densities from 14.5 to 17 lbs/gal. In these areas, cement slurry weights are at present being successfully reduced to around 12 lbs/gal. (under bottom-hole conditions) by the use of additives in the cement. Since the use of additives will decrease the strength which the cement will develop, the amount of additives which can be used must be based on the minimum cement strength which is acceptable; and thus the maximum slurry weight can be reduced. At present, the minimum tensile strength generally acceptable is 50 lbs/sq in. cured for 24 hours under bottom-hole temperature. This figure is based on laboratory tests1 and on a large number of cement jobs which have been conducted using cement which will not develop more than 50 psi tensile strength in 24 hours under bottom-hole conditions. Two additives are now in use for decreasing cement slurry weights. These are expanded perlite and/or bentonite. The density of both of these materials is greater than that of the cement slurry; however, large quantities of water may be added with these materials without producing a slurry which will settle out of suspension. It is these large quantities of water which contribute to the reduction in the slurry weight. The minimum slurry weight at present obtainable with expanded perlite and/or bentonite is approximately 12 lbs/gal. using a standard Portland cement slurry. In many areas, this weight reduction is insufficient; and returns are still lost during casing cementing operations. In many cases, the pay formation itself is fractured; and a considerable quantity of this cement is lost to the pay zone. It is therefore believed that if cement slurry weights can be reduced to as low as 10 lbs/gal., two advantages will accrue: 1. The lighter densities (10 to 12 lbs/gal.) should mitigate or eliminate lost returns during casing cementing operations. 2. Cement slurries above 12 Ibs/gal. (the present minimum limit ) should develop considerably more strength than is now being obtained. A tensile strength of 100 psi is desirable.' It is the object of this paper to describe a cement slurry having a weight of 10 lbs/gal. and capable of

Jan 1, 1955

By Henry M. Howe

THIS paper gives the composition of the iron and slag at different stages in the "air-furnace" process of preparing "hard metal," or white cast-iron, for conversion into malleable cast-iron by annealing. The details of the process are given in an appendix. One of us had been trying for years to work some chemist of some of our malleable-iron works up to a degree of enthusiasm which would lead him to make such au investigation. It would have had the advantage of the greater familiarity with the conditions which one habitually on the spot must have. Failing in this, he made use of an opportunity which presented itself of taking samples here represented, with such fairness as the conditions permitted, holding firmly that a rough approximation to the truth is better than the complete lack of data, or that a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. We hope that this attempt may stimulate others effectively to duplicate this work, and thus correct or confirm it. Our results are shown in Table I. and graphically in Figs. 1 and 2. Discussion.-At the time when the first two samples were taken, the metal and slag were still too sluggish to permit fair sampling, and not until sample 6 were the conditions really favorable, because at the time of the fourth sample the metal was not fully melted, and even at the time of sample 5 it was still sluggish. Indeed, the slag was probably very heterogeneous throughout, because it took up silica and alumina rapidly from the bottom, and because it was so siliceous as to be sluggish at this relatively low temperature. This hetero-geneousness is exaggerated in the two samples of slag 8, apparently by the great viscosity due to its extraordinary acidity. Note that the manganous oxide of one sample is about two and

Mar 1, 1909

By Francis M. Walters

IN spite of the war and the preoccupation of many physical metallurgists with work on secret or confidential problems, definite progress was made during 1944 in our understanding of the behavior of steel and of the effect of alloying elements. During the first two years of the war there was much concern over the possible unavailability of certain alloying elements; this period saw the development of the N.E. (National Emergency) steels. However, the measures taken eased the alloy situation and currently, highly practical problems under study are the graphitization of low-carbon steel and weld-cracking, while investigations of more theoretical interest have concerned hardenability, isothermal reactions, the effect of hydrogen and the interpretation of the notched-bar impact test.

Jan 1, 1945

By Jennifer Drake, Edward T. Moriuchi, Jennifer A. Hill

SEAMSYS and CSD/SMP are sets of computer programs that assist geologists and mine engineers in modeling and evaluating coal properties. The systems are tailored for treatment of waste and coal quality data, including metallurgical coal product capabilities. The gridded SEAMSYS model honors all drillhole data and incorporates user- defined mining parameters, losses and dilutions, and operational constraints. A variety of reserve reports and graphic displays are available from the model. Preliminary mine planning is accomplished through automatic cut generation and production targeting. CSD/SMP refines the preliminary plans to help anticipate the consequences of various mine schedules and evaluate equipment capacity requirements.

Jan 1, 1983

By G. F. Comstock

H. M. BOYLSTON, Cambridge, Mass.-It might be asked, since this test is so simple, why it was not discovered before. It seems to me the explanation is that when we have used the sodium picrate solution, it has .generally been on a very, high-carbon or hypereutectoid steel; to detect . the presence of free cementite, and when we have looked for sulphides, it

Jan 4, 1917

By Richard J. Mainiero

INTRODUCTION Because of the hazards associated with flammable methane gas and coal dust, the shooting of mudcaps (adobes) or other unconfined explosive charges in underground bituminous coal mines is prohibited; all explosives must be fired in stemmed boreholes. However, there are situations where it would be advantageous from a safety standpoint to fire open shots. This would be in the areas of dislodging loose roof slabs, overhangs, rock-fall leveling, slab or boulder breaking, crib removal, and crevice shooting. The Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior, has been developing an explosive charge that is non-incendive; that is, detonation of the charge will not ignite a flammable atmosphere. This explosive charge could be applied to the blasting conditions mentioned above. As of this writing, the explosive charge has not yet been certified as "permissible" for use in flammable atmospheres, but the necessary protocol is being finalized with the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), U.S. Department of Labor. The explosive charge described in this paper is merely a prototype sheathed rock-breaker charge (sheathed permissible explosive rock- breaker charge) demonstrating the feasibility of such a device. Industry may modify the design and composition of the charge in producing a commercial product so long as it is still safe, as defined by a testing schedule being developed by the Bureau of Mines and MSHA.

Jan 1, 1984

By U. C. Tainton

FOR the last 15 years lead has been the standard material for anodes in electrolytic zinc production and it has been generally accepted that this lead should be as free as possible from impurities. Laist1 says, "Next in importance to the purity of solution is the purity of the electrodes and tank lining material. The purest lead obtainable should be used for anodes." The same conclusion is expressed by Ingalls2 and by two German investigators who say that experiments have demonstrated that the purer the lead, the greater is its resistance to corrosion during electrolysis.3 Pure lead, however, while the best material hitherto available for anodes, is not entirely free from objection. The plain lead anode gradually disintegrates under electrolysis, so that the life of an anode, say ¼ in. thick, is frequently not more than two years. Part of the lead from the anode finds its way to the cathode, lowering the purity of the deposited zinc and decreasing the hydrogen overvoltage. The rest of the lead that comes from the disintegration of the anode goes into the manganese dioxide which is precipitated in the cells, rendering unsaleable what might otherwise be a valuable by-product. Yet a further disadvantage of plain lead anodes comes from their tendency to bend or buckle during electrolysis, as a result of intercrystalline oxidation. This makes it necessary to use a fairly wide spacing between anode and cathode to avoid short circuits, and thus leads to a higher power consumption than would otherwise be necessary. The power consumption is also affected by the high decomposition voltage at a lead peroxide surface.

Jan 1, 1929

By W. Irwin Moyer

Two methods for the rapid valuation of oil properties are in common use. The one best known and most widely used is the "per barrel" value, based on the present daily production of the well, without regard to its past performance or the history of the sand or pool from which it produces. The second method is the "time to pay out," or the length of time required for a well to place itself upon the credit side of the ledger, from which time the returns from its production (less the operating expenses) will be clear profit. The time basis for valuation is also commonly used in the appraisal of an undeveloped lease. In most oil fields, it is not thought good business to invest in production that will not pay out in at least 4 to 5 years. Nearly all buyers (except in certain regions of very persistent production like the deep-sand territory of the Appalachian field) expect wells to pay out in considerably less time than this. Like the barrel per day price, the time necessary for a well to pay out has been determined for each field, so that one frequently hears a field or district referred to as having a certain time to pay out. This is considered the norm for that field or district and the buyer and seller base their value, to greater or less extent, on their belief in the accuracy of this time. The writer long ago became convinced of the inaccuracy of the barrel per day method, except when greatly modified for local conditions, such as the age of the wells, their economic limit, operating conditions in the field, the future price of oil, and the persistence of the sand as a producer. When so modified, this method becomes more of an analytic or predicted probable yield valuation. While the appraiser may not go through each step in a valuation based on future returnable revenue, his knowledge of the field and the local conditions surrounding his leases make it possible for him to estimate a fair sales value that, in many cases, will be a close approximation to the truth. This is quite different from the commonly understood barrel per day value, in that the conditions surrounding the sale of one lease or property at a fair market value may

Jan 1, 1922

I HAVE told you of two parts of the mould for guns. You lack the third, which is the one for making the breech. This, in addition to being a part that is always ornamented with some piece of sculpture to make the gun beautiful, is that part which forms the bottom and closes the whole mould. It is also the one that sustains the entire burden of the bronze, and it must therefore be made with great consideration and diligence, taking care to make it strong with clay and with iron bands. Various methods are used in making this. Every master does as he knows how, either preferring to do it quickly or delighting to make his work ornate and beautiful. His choice also depends on whether they are to be just artillery or occasions for artistry. There are some who, if the guns are of a round form, make the pattern for the breech on a lathe, either of wood or of clay. If they are fluted, they make the flutes by hand in wood or clay, following the pattern of the board. In a part that perchance might not come out of the mould, they put some tallow underneath or make it entirely of tallow or wax so that it will come out. Likewise, if they wish to make cornices or other projections these can be put on either in wood or in clay. In the same way they also apply leafwork of clay or wax so that it can be taken out by hand or with the fire.

Jan 1, 1942

By E. C. Wade, R. D. Valentine

This paper describes a computer applications engineering system and it's use to apply a thermal dryer fan motor in a coal preparation plant. The computer hardware and software systems are described to indicate the general approach taken and a specific case study is reviewed to show how computer power is brought to projects in the coal industry.

Jan 1, 1983

By W. A. Backofen, N. E. Paton

DEFORMATION twinning contributes to the plasticity of titanium and has been reported on {10i2}, {1121},{11221}, {1123}, and {1124} planes.' Twinning on {1011} has also been reported in commercially pure titanium as a result of quenching from 1000', but no reports of such twins occurring as a result of deformation alone are known to the authors. In this study single crystals grown from iodide titanium were compressed parallel to the c axis over the temperature range 25 to 800°C. From it has come evidence that (10il) deformation twins are the most common type between 400" and 800°C. Crystals about 6 mm high with a rectangular cross section measuring about 3 by 4 mm were used in the tests. Chemical analyses showed them to contain 220 to 250 ppm 0 arid 10 to 15 ppm N. The long axes of the crystals were made parallel to the c axis while the sides were parallel to (i100) and (1120), as shown in Fig. 1. The crystals were compressed between polished alumina platens with no lubrication, in a vacuum of 2 x lom5 torr. Between 25' and 300°C the predominant twinning mode was (11221, which is to be expected for this stress state. There was an abrupt change at 400°C, however, and from that temperature up to 800°C twinning took place almost entirely on (10i1 ). Twin planes were determined by the two-surface rnethd. Measurement of the crystal orientation within several (10i1) twins by means of polarized-light4 and transmission electron microscopy showed that the lattice reorientations were the same as those previously reported for the (10i l ) twinning in magnesium.' This reorientation is consistent with The calculated (10il ) twinning shear for titanium is 0.10, while that measured from surface offsets on a (1150) face, which is parallel to the shear direction, was about 0.15. Slip within the twins, or in the matrix adjacent to the twins, probably accounts for the larger measurement. Slip in both locations was judged to have occurred from observations on foils in the electron microscope.

Jan 1, 1970

By J. C. Smock

THE magnetic and polaric properties of magnetite, or magnetic iron ore, are fundamental facts in magnetism. The disturbing effect of this mineral upon the magnetic needle in land surveying must have been very early observed. The difficulties arising from this source are still almost insurmountable in making accurate surveys in districts where this ore occurs to any extent, either as a rock

Jan 1, 1876

By Henry Souther

It is generally admitted that a god, practical and commercial set of specifications for the use of the many purchasers of cast-iron does not exist. A few good sets are in the hands of large buyers, but even these are very different, contradictory, and not intended to cover a wide range of product. Furthermore, most of them have been prepared to cover but one branch of the industry. It is strange that purchasers of cast-iron have not looked into this question long ago and demanded good, uniform cast-irou. Probably cast-iron has been discarded from many uses because of its failure in a few instances, even though the failure was due to ignorance of the quality of the iron, or perhaps to abnormally bad iron. Some foundrymen seem to consider all gray iron from a given foundry as uniform, especially if they know that it has been made from certain well-known brands of pig. It is likely that with standard specifications and the increase of knowledge necessary for their intelligent employ-

Jan 1, 1905

JUST as I have taught you to refine silver in a small way and to make assays, so now I wish to teach you how to make cupeling hearths in place of these little cupels when you have silver in large quantities. This is done in four ways, as I have seen, but all are alike in the end and differ very little one from the other. There are some who make use of a furnace with a vault built with bricks above the cupeling hearth. There are some others who use in place of this an iron hood like a large cover. There are some others who use only heavy dry sticks of oak or some other thick wood. Others have certain long plates of terra cotta that cover the whole hearth in three or four pieces; the two of these that adjoin have [56] a hole in the middle that leads exactly into the middle of the cupeling hearth, and through this they put in the material and the lead, according to the practice I shall describe.

Jan 1, 1942

By George E. Aiken

Modern high speed bucket wheel excavators (BWEs) can dig materials which power shovels can't handle without blasting. Yet these machines are not used in any large, open pit ore mines in the United States. American mining has been slow to use the wheel's special capabilities of high production volume at low cost, due perhaps to a traditional familiarity with shovels and draglines and/or the lack of data of BWE operation, design and cost. Of course, shovels and draglines can not be replaced by BWEs in all cases, but under suitable conditions bucket wheels can out-perform other conventional excavators and simultaneously permit significant operating savings. The latter aspect will become increasingly important to American mining men because as more low to medium grade orebodies are found in regions of thick overburden, better and cheaper ways of uncovering them must be developed. Typical of such areas are the thick alluvial fans of the Southwest and the glacial drift areas in northern regions. Much of this material would handle well with a wheel excavator without blasting, although ripping might be necessary in some cases.

Jan 1, 1966

By M. E. Straumanis, R. P. Shodhan

LATTICE parameters of molybdenum of various purities are summarized in Table I. The latter shows that the parameter fluctuates between 3.1467 and 3.1475A. The room-temperature expansion coefficient a is also not well-known as values from 4.90 to 5.20 x 10-6 can be found in the literature.=-' It, therefore, seemed appropriate to repeat the measurements under exactly controlled conditions, using high-purity Hilger molybdenum powder (containing 0.0015 wt pct of Fe, 0.005 of Si and traces of other elements) and a 99.95 pct pure Sylvania Electric preparation (containing Cr, Fe, Ni, Si, Sn, and C in amounts of 50 ppm of each and in still smaller amounts Cu, Pb, Mg, and Mn). Of course, both samples could have contained at least 0.01 pct of oxygen in form of a surface oxide. However, oxygen, because of its small solubility in molybdenum, does not influence its lattice constant.g The determinations were made in a cylindrical precision X-ray camera, 64 mm in diam, the temperature of which was controlled within *0.05"C, by inserting it into a special thermostat." To exclude the film shrinkage effect (after the development of the film), the asymmetric film placement method was used." Absorption corrections (e.g., by extrapolation)" were unnecessary because of the use of a thin Li-B-glass fiber (about 0.08 mm in diam) which was fastened to the sample holder of the camera and dusted with the fine molybdenum powder. Cum radiation of the wavelength 1.389350 kX was applied because it produced in 30 min the line (420) having a high Bragg angle of about 81.6 deg. The conversion factor of 1.00202 gave the results in angstroms. To obtain the expansion coefficient a, exposures were made at various temperatures t, see Fig. 1, on at least two films at each temperature. The films were measured with a componator and the lattice constants a were calculated. The expansion coefficient was found from: where a2s is the constant at 25°C and A is the change in a and t. The same equation (knowing a) was used to reduce all the constants obtained at various temperatures to that of 25"C, Table 11. The probable error S507p (at a 50 pct confidence limit) was calculated from the reduced constants:

Jan 1, 1969

By T. E. Watkins, M. D. Nelson

INTRODUCTION Deeper drilling for oil is becoming more and more the rule rather than the exception. With deeper drilling come additional problems, perhaps the greatest being those brought on by the higher temperatures encountered down the hole. particularly in the Gulf Coast region of Texas and Louisiana. Temperature gradients of the order of 1.8° to 2.0°F/100 ft are not unusual, and a gradient of 2.3"F.'100 ft is found in some areas of Texas. With a mean surface temperature of 74oF, the following temperatures could be expected for a geothermal gradient of 2.0°F; 100 ft: at 10,000 it. 271°F. 12,000 ft, 314°F: 14,000 ft, 354,oF; and 16.000 ft. 394°F. Severe gelation of lime-base drilling fluid in wells that have high bottom hole temperatures has become perhaps the most serious difficulty enconntered in drilling under such conditions. Lime-base drilling fluids have been very succesefully and widely used in the drilling of wells in the Gulf Coast region because of their inherent stability toward contaminants. their ability to suppress the swelling dispersion of bentonitic shales, and their ease of maintainance. The gradual recognition: during the past few years, that these muds were. in themselve. the cause of many difficulties experienced in drilling has led to wide-pread efforts by the drilling industry. to determine the reasons for the failure of these mud systems and to develop mud systems capable of performing satisfactorily under high-temperature conditios. MANIFESTATIONS OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE GELATION it is generally possible to recognize the symptons of high-temperature gelation early enough that advance predictions can be made of serious difficulties. in mud control, and the useful life of the drilling fluids can be extended by proper treatment. Following i.; a list of the manifestations of high-temperature gelation: (1) The drill string 'takes weight' while going in the hole after a trip. In early stages of high-temperature gelation it is possible to notice a slight reduction in drill string weight as the drill pipe is lowred near the bottom of the hole. (2) Excessive pump pressure is required to .tart the circulation of drilling fluid at or near the bottom of the hole when going hack to bottom after a trip. As the severity of the gelation increases it may be necessary to break circulation a number of times when going in the hole. (3) The drilling fluid from the bottom of the hole is thick and often granular or lumpy when pumped up after making a round trip. In a severely gelled drilling fluid system such a condition may be irreversible; that is, it cannot be stirred or chemically treated to produce a satisfactory drilling fluid. (4) Completion tool.. such as logging tools or perforating guns will not sink to the bottom of the hole. On some occasions completion tools will become stuck and require a fishing job to retrieve them if the wire line attached to them is broken. It is often difficult to determine whether the condition of the drilling fluid is responsible for sticking the tool or whether the wire line becomes key seated in a crooked hole and causes the allow difficulty. When there are 110 other symptoms of high-temperature gelation. then the difficulty may usually be attributed to the latter cause. (5) In extreme cases of high-temperature gelation it is necessary to "wash" and "ream" when going back to bottom after coming out of the hole. (6) In many -instance. it has been found to be extremely difficult and expensive to 1111 production packers 2nd tubing in moderately deep oil wells which had been drilled with a lime-base drilling fluid. In such instances-the original mud had apparently "set" to a consistency approaching that of a weak cement. CAUSES OF HIGH-TEMPERATURE GELATION Extensive test; have indicated that a lime-base mud does not develop a highly gelled condition at temperatures below 250°F. whereas above that temperature such condition often develops rapidly. (Fig. 1) concurrently. the following changes are evident ill the mud: (1) The alkalinity of the mud decreases to a very low value. with both caustic soda and lime being consumed. (2) The quartz content of the mud decreases sharply. (3) The bentonitic content of the mud decreases or di-appears, with concurrent decrease or loss of base exchange capacity of mud solids. (4) New compounds formed in the mud have been found to be cal-cium silicate, calcium aluminum silicate, and calcium sodium aluminum silicate. (5) The mud loses the ability to form a filter cake of low permeability. The above characteristics have been discussed, in part. by other authors

Jan 1, 1953

By R. P. Carreker, R. L. Fullman, J. C. Fisher

CREEP tests are usually constant load tests. As deformation occurs, the cross section of the specimen changes so as to maintain approximately constant volume. Until necking starts, A _ l0 A0 - 1 where A is the cross-sectional area, 1 is the specimen length, and the subscript o indicates initial values. Thus, during a tensile creep test under constant load, the stress increases in proportion to the elongation. A A, 1, where S is the stress and F the load applied to the specimen.

Jan 1, 1954