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By Michael C. Newbury

For thousands of years gold has been not only a commodity, valued for its comparative scarceness, immutability and homogeneity but also a medium of exchange which has no nationality. Approximately 90% of the gold produced is still accessible in the world, although some of it in museums, galleries, jewellery and dental work is not immediately available for circulation. The majority is held as bars by central banks for their reserves; the balance circulates as coinage or bullion held for investment. The value is further enhanced by the political aspect that gold cannot be debased as paper currency can and, therefore, it always becomes an investment refuge. It has always been possible to buy and sell gold at a price which is readily established by reference to bullion's weight and purity; and it is this fact which makes a loan denominated in gold, rather than one in currency, a viable alternative means of finance. The purpose of this paper is to discuss some general aspects of what is considered to be one of the more effective and presently popular methods of financing the development of a gold mine - the gold loan. This is not intended to discuss all the minute details which must be uniquely designed to fit each individual situation, but rather to provide general guidelines. You will all be aware of the traditional sequence whereby companies primarily finance exploration work by the raising of equity through the sale of shares to the public or by that unique Canadian form.

Jan 1, 1987

By Will H. Coghill, J. Bruce Clemer

Flotation has been so closely allied with the sulfide minerals and their early and associated oily reagents that the term "oil flotation" has erroneously been applied to the entire flotation process. Today, the term "chemical flotation" might be used to advantage. Flotation literature has dealt primarily with the removal of sulfides from non-sulfide gangues, and the separation of one sulfide from another. Now, the application of the process to the separation of nonsulfide minerals is coming to the fore; and from the standpoint of the number of commercial minerals involved, the flotation of nonsulfides offers the larger field. Here, soap or soap-forming substances, such as the fatty acids and their derivatives, are used; hence there may well be a subdivision of the chemical flotation process called "soap flotation." Early experimenters learned that it was easy to form a froth or foam that would carry a part or all of the ore charge over the lip of the flotation machine; but this could not be regarded as flotation because of the lack of selectivity. Doubtless soap was one of the first reagents tried, and doubtless it was rejected on account of its gangue-carrying properties. Now this same gangue-carrying ability makes soap an acceptable reagent, for we are dealing with that which, among sulfides, is considered "gan-gue." As in the flotation of sulfides, so in the flotation of nonsulfides, the selective flocculation of the mineral and the dispersion of the gangue are the first objectives. In fact, these two phenomena epitomize flotation. They depend upon the unlike surface properties of the respective minerals; and as long as the components of an ore have unlike surface properties, a separation is possible, at least in theory. Often in nonsulfide flotation it makes little difference which mineral floats and which is depressed; generally only a separation is sought.

Jan 1, 1935

By Hang Zhao, Xinping Li, Pingan Wu, Yi Luo

The deep-buried rock surrounding the Jinping II Hydro-power Station was taken as the engineering background. Using model specimens of classified rock materials to simulate fractured rock mass under high in-situ stress conditions, the test about acoustic propagation law on single fracture model of specimen under different pressures and different angles were carried out. The variation of p-wave velocity in fractured rock mass and axial stress-strain relationship in the whole test procedure was also studied. Based on damage mechanics principle and the acoustic wave propagation in cracked rock mass, comparative study on damage constitutive relation of fractured rock mass under high in-situ stress in consideration of equivalent strain and equivalent energy was performed. As the results showed, with the change of axial stress level under constant confining pressure, the change in wave velocity can be divided into three stages: slow increase (small variation in amplitude), rapid reduce (large variation in amplitude ) and accelerate reduction. When the confining pressure is constant, the maximum p-wave velocity and the peak strength of specimens increases with the decrease of the crack angle. When the crack angle is constant, the maximum p-wave velocity and the peak strength of specimens increases with the increase of confining pressure.It is identified that the theoretical calculation results of constitutive relation about elasto-plastic damage model containing variable wave velocity in the fractured rock mass is consistent with the model test results.Therefore,the constitutive relation can provide reasonable suggestions for engineering practice.

Jan 1, 2015

By B. D. Cullity, J. T. Norton, M. Telkes

THIS investigation of antimony-selenium alloys was undertaken in an attempt to find a suitable material for use in power-generating thermocouples. The chief requirements for such a material are high thermoelectric power, low electrical resistivity and low thermal conductivity. Measurements of the first two properties mentioned are usually sufficient to determine whether or not a material is suitable for use in a thermoelectric generator. As a first approximation the requirements are: 1. Thermoelectric power greater than 200 microvolts per °C. 2. Electrical resistivity less than 0.002 ohm-cm. 3. Thermal conductivity less than 0.015 watt per cm per "C. These quantities are averages for the Operating temperature range. Previous Work Experimental investigations of equilibrium in the antimony - selenium system have been summarized by Han-sen². These investigations extended from 1906 to 1921. In Hansen's judgment, the most accurate phase diagram is that determined by Parravano, in 1913 and this is reproduced in the upper part of fig. 1. The most notable parts of this diagram are the liquid miscilibility gap, extending from about 12 to 36 wt pct selenium, and the intermediate phase Sb2Se3 containing 49.3 wt pct selenium. The crystal structure of Sb2Se3 has not been determined. Pelabon3,4 made measurements of the electrical resistivity of a few antimony-selenium alloys but his investigation was not very complete. He found that the resistivity increased with the selenium content and became very large as the composition of Sb2Se3 was approached. For alloys containing less than 50 at. pct (39.3 wt pet) selenium, he found that the resistivity increased regularly with temperature. For alloys containing larger amounts of selenium, he found various results: in some cases, the resistivity decreased with increas-

Jan 1, 1951

By Fred N. Kissell

Methane flows and pressures were measured in mines in the Pittsburgh, Hartshorne, and Pocahontas No. 3 coalbeds. From the data, the permeability of each of these coal beds was computed. It was found to depend strongly on the type of coal and on the amount of water in the coalbed, and it was found to increase with time. All of the coalbeds had a high-permeability zone adjacent to the face or rib, and the Pittsburgh bed exhibited directional anisotropy. Surprisingly, little or no overburden effect was observed.

Jan 1, 1972

Grade control plays an essential role in the good running of a mine. The factors at play are many, starting from a good analysis of the geology and a correct sampling procedure. Once this is achieved (and it is an essential prerequisite), the problem is to adequately define what is ore and what is waste. This paper tries to show, through a small example, how simple geostatistical techniques (variography, and moving average or kriging), can help in accurately defining these limits in a geologically homogeneous zone, thus allowing optimal use of the available information.

Jan 1, 1987

By W. M. Peirce

ON May 16, 1871, twenty-two men met in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, and founded the American Institute of Mining Engineers.* If we could transport ourselves back to that year and survey the state of science and technology in general, and, in particular, the field of our immediate interest-nonferrous metals-we would feel a justifiable pride in what had been accomplished up to that time. These accomplishments in the metal field were at the moment in the process of documentation by an Englishman, J. A. Phillips, in a new 700-page edition of his book to be published in 1874 under the title of "Elements of Metallurgy." True, looking over his shoulder, we would smile to read that "all metals are capable of assuming a crystalline form under favorable conditions," and that tensile testing is done "by adding weights to a firmly suspended wire until it fractures," and we would find only three pages on aluminum and none on magnesium. We would, however, find an astonishing wealth of detailed knowledge on iron and steel and the then common nonferrous metals and alloys such as brass and bronze. But if we possessed a little prophetic vision as we directed our attention to the short period that had elapsed since the close of the Civil War, we

Jan 1, 1947

By D. Maxton

INTRODUCTION This paper traces the application of High Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR) at industrial and pilot scale in Australia. The Argyle Diamond Mine installed the first of two smooth segmented HPGRs during 1990 in an open-circuit secondary-tertiary crushing application to increase throughput. In 2002 a third HPGR was added to improve liberation and so increase the recovery of smaller diamonds. The latest improvements in wear technology (tyre with tungsten carbide studs) were incorporated in the design of this machine. Extensive HPGR pilot-plant trials were undertaken during the 1990s at both the Kalgoorlie Consolidate Gold Mine and the Boddington Gold Mine. The purpose of these trials was to evaluate HPGR as a method to increase throughput, as an alternative to SAG milling, and also to ascertain if downstream benefits existed. One of the challenges for HPGR circuit designers is to translate what occurs at small laboratory and pilot scale into what is likely to happen in a full-scale circuit. Scale-up from pilot machine results is normally recommended by manufacturers. However, such tests need relatively large quantities of material, particularly if meaningful data on wear are to be obtained. Laboratory tests are preferable, as they need relatively small quantities of ore, but may be questioned in terms of how they relate to full-scale operation. Modelling and simulation have played a particularly important role in this respect in Australia. Models are available which have proven to be very accurate at being able to scale throughput and specific energy response from laboratory to industrial machines. More recently, work in Australia has also been done in developing a model which has the potential to scale laboratory wear data as well.

Jan 1, 2004

Minerals: When man first picked up an appropriately shaped stone and fastened it to a stick of wood to create a primitive axe or hammer he started down the long road of mineral dependency that has continued until today (Fig. 2). Though he did not realize it, that man and his stone axe created an extremely simple form of mineral economy. The struggle against extinction from that day has been fought with minerals. In addition to providing himself with a means to fight for survival, he also exhibited an increase in intelligence. As his curiosity was stimulated, his ability increased to provide himself with better mineral and metal weapons and tools. Today, when we examine the artifacts of past civilizations, we measure the degree of development that had been attained by the variety of metals and minerals possessed and how they were used. The metals employed are so characteristic of the level of intelligence that we have named the various stages of human progress by the metals that were most commonly utilized. Thus, mall went through the Stone Age, the 13ronze Age, the Iron Age and now has reached the Steel Age. The first period of mineral development, the Stone 4ge, began during late Pliocene time. In this first mineral age, prehistoric man began to shape stones by chip- ping off small pieces until the stone assumed the crude form he wanted. As his intelligence increased, he progressed to finer workmanship and turned out finished spear heads and barbed arrows. Throughout this very

Jan 1, 1950

NEW MEMBERS The following list comprises the names of those persons who became members during the period Aug. 1, 1916, to Sept. 10, 1916: ALLEN, Louis M., JR., Chief Mine Sampler, Old Dominion Min: & Smelt. Co., Globe, Ariz. ATKINSON, CHESTER, Min. Engr., Asst. Supt., Smelt. Dept., Cerro de Pasco Mining Co., La Fundicion, Peru, South America. BAKER, CLAIR LINCOLN, Genl. Mgr., Mexican Dept., Amer. Smelt. & Ref. Co., 1108 Mills Bldg., El Paso, Tex. BARROWS, WALTER A., 3d, Asst. Supt., Blast Furnaces, Thomas Iron Co., Hellertown, Pa. BARTHOLOMEW, GEORGE POMEROY, Asst. Cons. Engr., Guggenheim Bros., 120 Broadway, New York, N. Y. BILLOW, ELMER E., Pres., National Supply Co., 416 NN-rest Grand Ave., Chicago, 111. BROWN, SAMUEL ROLLINS, Mill Supt., The Plymouth Cons. Gold Mines, Ltd., Plymouth, Cal.

Jan 10, 1916

By P. A. Farrar, M. D. Silver, K. L. Komarek

Thermodynamic properties of Hf-0 alloys have been determined from 0 to 25 at. pct 0 between 1000" and 1200°K by equilibrating specimens with alkaline metal oxide-metal vapor combinations. Partial molar-free energies, enthalpies, and entropies of oxygen have been obtained and are conzpared with similar results for the Ti-0 and ZY-0 In continuation of a thermodynamic investigation of the Ti-O and Zr-O systems1 activities of oxygen and lattice parameters of Hf-0 alloys have been deter- system. The positional entropy in all three systems corresponds to an ideal random interstitial solution with one interstitial site per one metal atom. The lattice parameters of hafnium and Hf-O solid solutions have been determined in the range 0 to 20 at. pct O from measurements of Debye powder patterns. mined. All three metals dissolve large quantities of oxygen to form interstitial solid solutions. The phase diagram of the Hf-O system is shown in Fig. 1.' The maximum solubility of oxygen in the cph a phase is considerable (up to 25 at. pct O). The solubility in the high-temperature phase is much smaller. The only stable compound in the solid state is HfO2 which may exist with a certain oxygen deficiency. The low partial pressure of oxygen of Hf-0 alloys required the application of an indirect method. As the most suitable procedure a method, first applied by Kubaschewski to the V-O system,3 was combined with a principle developed by Herasymenko for the

Jan 1, 1963

By P. Banerjee, P. Dash, S. Sriramoju, A. Suresh, R. Lingam, T. Ray

"One single property that influences the quality and market value of coal to the maximum extent is the ash content. The lower the coal ash higher is the energy utilization and potential for different applications. Even though Indian coal washeries aspire to produce coal with low ash, the intimate distribution pattern of ash bearing minerals in the coal matrix becomes the real bottleneck, as it brings down the clean coal yield to the impractical value. Because of this fact, most of the Indian washeries are operated to produce coal with 14-15% ash content at the yield of around 40%. In this context, with an objective to produce low ash coal at higher yield, a novel chemical beneficiation route has been explored to demineralize the high ash containing Indian coals. In this present work, the production of low ash clean coal from high ash Indian coals using chemical leaching process has been studied at pilot plant level. The leaching process parameters such as reaction temperature, reagent concentration, reaction time, coal-liquid ratio and agitator speed have been optimized for the flotation tailings sample from a captive washery of Tata Steel. The results obtained show that 67% demineralization could be achieved in a single stage of leaching process with a product yield of more than 65%. For further demineralization, multistage leaching was carried out and the results showed that 75-85% demineralization could be achieved with significant reduction in alumina to silica ratio. Additionally, the phosphorus content is also significantly reduced from 0.20 % to 0.022 %. Further, it is interesting to note that there is no increment of sodium content in the product coal after chemical treatment."

Jan 1, 2014

By D. L. Pentz

The use of "probability" methods in slope stability analysis has been practised by geotechnical engineers for some time. This paper questions whether the term probability has been properly used since in many cases the term is used in a classical statistical manner only to describe frequency distributions of data. This paper proposes a definition of the term probability which includes the engineers' subjective state of confidence for all critical parameters. Such parameters may include the slope stability model, undetected structural features, strength, groundwater pressure distribution, and geological framework. This process does not make a "better" analysis but it does force the geotechnical engineer to state his opinion in such a manner that others can understand and if necessary, criticize the assumptions. Further, this technique forces the question, "What impact would failure of a slope have on the production schedule or costs of a mine?" The level of risk taken in adopting a particular slope design strategy in a mine is not a question of what Factor of Safety should be selected but, rather, what trade-offs result from steeper slopes and the associated costs of failure. This paper also presents several simple probabilistic techniques which, though widely used in other fields have been all but ignored in geotechnical slope stability analyses. These include the use of stratified sampling to optimize Monte Carlo uncertainty approaches, and the use of simple functional approximations rather than complex stability models in probabilistic analysis. The author presents a case example of this technique and discusses the results in comparison with more traditional methods.

Jan 1, 1983

By A. Pinches, R. Winby, P. J. van Staden, M. K. Rhodes, P. C. Miller

This paper is a progress report on the commercialization of using bioleaching for base-metal concentrates. The paper focuses on bioleach processes for recovering copper from chalcopyrite and nickel/cobalt from pentlandite/pyrrhotite. Data is discussed from pilot-plant trials in which an overall recovery >95% was obtained for the bioleaching of copper from chalcopyrite. The pilot plant was operated in closed circuit with solvent extraction and electrowinning circuits for final metal recovery. For the bioleaching of nickel and cobalt from pentlandite/pyrrhotite, an overall recovery of 97% was achieved. Precipitation routines were used to produce a final nickel/cobalt product. The pilot plants were capable of treating a few kilograms of concentrate per day. Prominent features in the design of a 1-t/day (1.1-stpd) copper-bioleach demonstration plant for the treatment of chalcopyrite concentrate are discussed. The plant, which is now under design, will be constructed and operated based on the results obtained from the laboratory pilot-plant campaigns. Issues of scale-up for the demonstration plant, together with integration into upstream and downstream processing, are also addressed. Independently derived capital and operating costs are presented for a possible commercial plant. These cost studies indicate the principle economic issues in considering the application of bioleaching to the extraction of base metals. The benefits of bioleaching complex concentrates that are not amenable to physical beneficiation and economic treatment by conventional smelting are highlighted. Issues, such as the environmental aspects, that illustrate the benefits of bioleach technology are given.

Jan 1, 2000

By Phoebe L. Hauff, Jeffrey P. Kurtz, Paul D. Chamberlin

Clay minerals can be a source of problems in heap leaching operations. The ore for many heap leach operations is commonly acid-sulfate alteration zone rocks which may be found in hot springs deposits as well as the supergene zone of other near- surface gold deposits. Clays can be important constituents of these ores. Swelling clays, such as smectite, can come loose from the agglomerated ore, migrate within the heap, concentrate in pore spaces and often plug up flow channels in the heap Cement is often added to the ore as a binder during the agglomeration process. Lime is added for pH control. Their presence, combined with the sodium cyanide commonly used to leach, can raise the pH of the leach solution to 10 or even 12. This very alkaline solution can cause dissolution of some mineral Some clays, such as kaolinite, are not very stable in high pH solutions. They can be dissolved and reprecipitated as other clay species if sufficient silica and the appropriate cations are available in solution. Silica gels and amorphous materials can also be created from the dissolved kaolinite and other minerals and act as retardants to the flow of leach solutions in the heap. Therefore, before a heap leach operation is built, the operator should evaluate the clays in the ore and test the agglomeration procedure. It is important to know not only the mineralogy and the chemistry of the leach environment but how the minerals and solutions interact and what the products of this interaction are. A hypothesis is presented in this paper that expanding smectite- bearing clays can be generated within the heap. How and why this happens will be explained.

Jan 1, 1987

By F. W. Lake, H. A. Brett

With each year bringing the exploration of deeper and deeper producing horizons in the effort to maintain production, the problem of lifting the oil to the surface is continually becoming more difficult. Flowing and gas-lift wells eventually decline to such a point that pumping is necessary. The increasing loads on sucker rods resulting from deeper pumping operations are approaching the ultimate strength of the rods with consequent reduction in the factor of safety. With this diminishing factor of safety, the vibratory stresses causing fatigue, crystallization, and ultimate fracture become more important. These vibratory stresses are the result of varied pumping conditions which, if properly understood and investigated, may be eliminated to a great extent. To accomplish this purpose, a recording dynameter has been developed which gives an indicator card showing the actual load on the polished rod at each point of the pumping cycle. Recording Dynamometer The instrument consists of a dynamometer head of the piston and cylinder type filled with castor oil, and a recording device, the movable card holder being connected with the dynamometer through a system of levers and the hollow spring gage connected with the fluid chamber of the dynamometer by a high-pressure flexible tube. The dynamometer head is hung from the beam with an ordinary hanger and lugs on the cylinder, while the piston is attached to the polished rod. The movable card holder actuated through levers moves in a vertical direction pro-portionate to the movement of the polished rod. The recording arm of the hollow spring gage inscribes on the card the pressure at all times. Thus by proper scales, the indicator card gives the load on the polished rod at all points in the pumping cycle. Fig. 1 shows the hookup of the recording dynamometer at a pumping well.

Jan 1, 1928

By King D, Dickinson S. B, Matheson R. S

Graham Hall and V. M. Cottle (Rosebery, Tas.) : In their paper on "The Mineralized Rift Valleys of Tasmania", Campana, Dickinson, King and Matheson have summarized a wealth of data from many sources. In proposing the new concept of a rift valley structure, they claim to have found a new guide to regional ore control and distribution in North-west Tasmania.Although the authors acknowledge suggestions made by us prior to publication of the pa:per, we are still at variance with their conclusions. We are not convinced that a rift valley structure exist~d when the Ordovician conglomerate was deposited. We are unable to find evidence for Cambrian deposition in a rift valley or reason to project the structure to embrace Hercules, Rosebery, and "possibly" Mt Bischoff.That the Great Lyell Fault (the authors' Owen Rift Fault) is a promising place to look for ore is not a new idea, but the existence of important ore deposits away from the structure reveals its inability to provide an adequate explanation of regional mineral distribution. A well-known structure that does have an influence on ore deposition is not discussed by the authors.STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONSThe great thickness of coarse unsorted Ordovician conglomerate lying in an elongate but narrow belt of country is presented as evidence of its deposition centrally within a rift valley, the position-of which is now said to be outlined by resistant slabs of the conglomerate. The marginal shears of the rift are said to show up well along the edges of the conglomerate.

Jan 1, 1959

By E. G. Leonardon

THE first to appreciate and foresee the value of applying electrical measurements to structural studies was Prof. Conrad Schlumberger, Professor of Physics at the School of Mines in Paris. One of his earliest practical undertakings in this line was carried out, in the field, at Fierville-la-Campagne, Normandy, in 1912. His book, published in 1920,1 still stands as an authoritative, fundamental treatise on the use of the electric current in geological studies, in spite of the rapid evolution of geophysics during the last seven years. A remarkable feature of this book is that, even then, it stressed the role of electricity in structural investigations and made public the first successful results obtained therewith. Stratigraphic studies have been pursued continuously by Conrad Schlumberger and his associates since 1912, the only interruption being the World War. The results attained demonstrate the wide possibilities of electrical exploration in structural work. This field of activity is, at the least, as varied and valuable as the search for ore. It is curious that until very recently it has so slightly attracted the attention of geophysicists and geologists on this continent. The purpose of this paper is to present briefly some examples of the practical application of the potential methods to geological studies. These examples are chosen from a number of problems solved in the field by our firm, in the course of its consulting practice. Certain fundamental points are briefly stated before the field operations and interpretations are described.

Jan 1, 1928

By A. D. Rich

THE term "bleaching clay" or "bleaching earth," as used in the oil industries, refers to clays that in their natural state, or after chemical or physical activation, have the capacity for adsorbing coloring matter from oil. There are three common types of bleaching clays: fuller's earth, activated clays, and activated bauxite. Fuller's earth, or naturally active clay, is prepared from bentonites that possess natural activity. It is not activated commercially; in fact, earths of this type ordinarily do not respond satisfactorily to acid activation. Fuller's earth is prepared in pulverized as well as granular form for use in the contacting and percolation processes, respectively. Acid-activated clays also are of bentonitic origin. The basic raw clay, however, is of a type that has a very low natural activity but is highly activable by treatment with mineral acid. Commercial acid-activated clays generally possess several times the decolorizing power (bleaching efficiency) of the best quality of fuller's earth. The former are prepared commercially only in the pulverized grade because of the difficulties in obtaining a satisfactory granular product, and hence are used only in the contact process. Activated bauxite is made by heat-treating bauxite ore, which in its natural state has very little natural activity. The commercial product is prepared in granular form for use in the percolation process on petroleum oils. For the most part, bleaching clay is used commercially in the decolorization of animal, vegetable and petroleum oils, fats and waxes. It is applied in two ways: (1) by the percolation method and (2) by the contacting method. Percolation refers to the passage of oil through a bed of granular clay whereas contacting refers to direct agitation of oil and pulverized clay followed by removal of the clay from the oil by filtration. In either case, the decolorizing effect is obtained by inti-

Jan 1, 1949

By Xuliang Yang, Yuemin Zhao, Bo Zhang, Liang Dong, Cheng Sheng, Gongmin Li, Zhenfu Luo, Yaqun He, Chenlong Duan

Coal plays an important role in the primary energy consumption of all over the world. In 2012, coal reached the highest share (29.9%) of global primary energy consumption since 1970. Coal burning mainly contributes to the emission of SO2, NOX, Hg and other impurities that jeopardize the future of environment. . Beneficiation before coal utilization is the most economical and effective technology for removing the hazardous material and gangue. In this paper, a novel process of dry beneficiation based on gas-solid two-phase flow composed of the compound dry cleaning separator (FGX), the air dense medium fluidized bed separator (ADMFB) and the vibrated fluidized bed with autogenous medium (VFB) is proposed. The main equipment and the flowsheet of the united system are described in detail. Separating principle of the FGX, ADMFB and VFB devices are all based on gas-solid two-phase flow. In FGX, gassolid suspension is composed of continuous gas flow and coal powder in feed coal. Large size coal (+6- 80mm) can be pre-separated effectively, and large size gangue can be removed effectively. Moreover, - 6mm particles fed serve as autogenous medium in FGX. The probable E value is 0.13 for -80 mm raw coal. In ADMFB, magnetic powder with -0.3 + 0.045 mm size fraction and coal powder in feed coal are compound medium solids. The separation density can be adjusted and controlled according to properties of raw coal. -50 + 6 mm raw coal can be cleaned efficiently, the probable E value is 0.05. In VFB, -6 + 1 mm coal can be separated. Generally, -80 mm raw coal can be cleaned efficiently in the united system based on gas-solid two-phase flow.

Jan 1, 2014