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By Glenn A. Gruber

The conditioning of phosphate flotation feed with anionic flotation reagents was identified as a high- priority research topic during a beneficiation work- shop sponsored by the Florida Institute of Phosphate Research (FIPR). FIPR subsequently solicited research proposals to identify the mechanisms of reagent adsorption, to determine scale-up relationships for conditioner design, and to investigate the effect of conditioning variables on reagent adsorption and flotation performance. The two-year research project was awarded to Jacobs Engineering. Somasundaran, Inc., the University of Florida Mineral Resources Research Center, and the U.S. Bureau of Mines assisted Jacobs. Two mechanisms of anionic collector adsorption were detected by spectrographic analyses and confirmed by microcalorimetric measurements. The mechanisms provided a sound technical basis for the empirical practice of conditioning phosphate flotation feed at a high percent solids. Tests performed in laboratory and pilot-scale agitated tanks indicated that power intensity may be used as a reliable scale-up parameter for anionic conditioning of phosphate slurry. Excessive agitator speed during conditioning was found to be detrimental to anionic flotation performance. Some dimensional ratios of anionic conditioners were found to be consistent with good utilization of agitation energy. Laboratory conditioning and flotation tests demonstrated that adsorption of collector onto phosphate and the subsequent recovery of phosphate in anionic flotation were significantly influenced by the quantity and quality of water used in conditioning. Conversely, the quality of water used in flotation was more influential on the recovery of quartz in the concentrate. A comprehensive survey of anionic conditioners and conditioning practice in the Florida phosphate industry was also performed during this project. The study clearly showed that flotation testing with laboratory conditions typical of scientific research gives different results than laboratory testing with simulated plant conditions. The effects of test conditions on laboratory test results should be carefully considered by investigators planning and conducting applied research.

Jan 1, 1999

By Robert Sisselman

If we are lucky," says Hollis M. Dole, Assistant Secretary of the Interior, "coal, uranium and hydropower will provide us with maybe a third of the energy we require in 1985. The other two- thirds will have to be made available in liquid and gaseous form." Luck, however, may have run out, for if the facts and figures relating to supply and demand of natural gas over the next 20 years prove accurate, the United States may fall short in its attempts to bring the energy crisis under control. By the year 1990 the world will need to consume a minimum 150 quadrillion Btu of energy with gas requirements running as high as 42-43 trillion cu ft. By 1990, the U.S. alone will require 45-46 trillion cu ft. To meet anticipated demand, this country will have to overcome a deficiency of about 20 trillion cu ft since, by all pragmatic estimates, it will produce only 15-20 trillion cu ft of gas. The importation of natural gas into the U.S. will help but will not solve the problem. Adequate gas supplies will have to be supplied domestically. The Arctic, with its predicted huge reserves of gas, combined with imports of liquid natural gas (LNG) may provide as much as 15% of the 45-46 trillion figure, however, such reserves will not come into play as quickly as originally thought. The Alaskan gas fields, for instance, will provide a substantial supplement to domestic gas needs, but only after 1976.

Jan 10, 1972

Long range expansion plans begun in 1966 by The International Nickel Co. of Canada, producer of over 50% of the free world supply of the white metal, are so mammoth as to give rise to the speculation that something might have to burst at the seams. From an annual level of capital expenditure of $35 to $70 million, the company jumped in 1967 to $145 million in new capital investment and will come close to $200 million in 1968. Inco expects to spend $700 million in the next five years, beginning in 1968, for new mines and surface facilities in Canada. The program involves the opening of nine new mines within the next 3 1/2 years, expansion of producing mines, and construction of new plants and modernization and expansion of established ones to process the increased ore production. Beyond this, the company is committed deeply in developing new sources of nickel abroad. Any one of these new projects, if proven economic, would necessitate expenditures of about $100 million or more. For Inco, the economic strain was relieved without a rupture this spring when Henry S. Wingate, company chairman, reported' at the stockholders annual meeting that $150 million had been raised by the sale of bonds. This marked the first time in 32 years that the company had gone into debt.

Jan 10, 1968

A general form of pore pressure in a saturated porous medium, which is subject to external forces it has the pressurization of a borehole in hydraulic fracturing, is derived. The pore pressure consists of two parts: the preexisting initial pore pressure and the pressure induced by fluid flow due to the pressure difference caused by pressurizing the borehole The initial pore pressure associates with the effective stresses in the stress, fields of crustal stresses and a thick hollow cylinder subjected to internal and external pressures. The pure pressure weaned by fluid flow is implied in Biot's (1941) constitutive equation for three-dimensional consolidation and proved to be the exact effective pore pressure (Nur and Byerlee, 1971). Using this general form of pore pressure, a general poroelastic model for hydraulic-fracturing breakdown (fracture-initiation) pressure was derived. This model was validated by laboratory experimental results on Indiana limestone. Three sets of tests were conducted under the conditions of preexisting pore pressures of 6, 21 and 28 MPa, respectively. The equal horizontal (confining) pressures applied in the tests ranged from 6 to 60 MPa. Hainison and Fairhurst's (1967) model appear to be applicable to rocks having microcracks or flows. Experimental results of fracture reopening pressures on Indiana limestone supported this assertion. The test results also demonstrated that, when the pressure difference between the confining and the initial pore pressure grows larger than 14 to 21 MPa, the breakdown pressures agree well with the general poroelastic model developed in this paper. This indicates that the developed model will be superior when hydrofacturing stress measurements are conducted at great depth.

Jan 1, 1997

By R. L. McNearny, K. A. Barker

Four numerical models written with the "PFC2D " program were compared against four similar physical models. The numerical models were constrained numerically to closely follow the caving behavior of the physical models. Results from the numerical analyses closely simulated both the granular and blocky behaviors of the physical models, including bridging and interlocking of the simulated orebody during draw. The drawdown patterns and the rate of draw developed during numerical modeling also closely simulated the physical models. The same assumptions and governing parameters used in analyzing the first four models were applied to an additional model. The fifth model employed a completely different, uneven, draw sequence than the other four models, allowing the material to flow in a more granular manner with a demonstrated instability of the undercut sections between each drawpoint opening. Drawdown patterns and behavior of the numerical material of the first four models progressed at uneven and inconsistent rates, similar to those seen in the physical models. By inspection, the overall shape and flow lines of both the numerical and physical models were close in the area removed and in the flow characteristics. The fifth model proved to be the most unstable of all the models tested, with poor correlation to the physical models. The uneven draw sequence, coupled with an additional frictionless wall condition and an added drawpoint, caused the material to flow in a very granular manner. Information generated by this study can be used as a first approach in determining the proper draw rate, drawpoint spacing and undercut thickness for a block-caving operation. Numerical models are often difficult to predict and interpret. However, this study should increase the confidence level for use of the PFC2D program in the future.

Jan 1, 2000

By E. S. Bardwell

THE reverberatory copper-refining furnaces at the Great Falls Reduction Dept. of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co. have used successively, as fuel, lump coal on grates, pulverized coal, oil and natural gas. In no other plant, so far as can be ascertained, has such a variety of fuels been used. This fact affords a unique opportunity for comparing the relative efficiency obtained with these several fuels under nearly identical conditions. FURNACES The present furnace refinery at Great Falls was placed in operation in April, 1916. The original installation consisted of two furnaces, each with hearths 36 by 14 ft. and provided with fire boxes 10 by 12 ft. for firing lump coal on grates. These furnaces had air-cooled sand bottoms and chrome-brick side walls both above and below the metal line. The roofs were of 12-in. silica brick. Each furnace was provided with a waste-heat boiler of approximately 400 boiler-hp. capacity. We soon found that chrome brick was very unsatisfactory as sidewall material because of its excessive spalling. At the first opportunity the furnaces were rebuilt, using magnesite brick below the metal line and silica brick from the metal line to the roof. At the same time the thickness of the side walls was increased, thus decreasing the width of the hearth to 13 ft. At about this time also, the thickness of the furnace roofs was increased from 12 to 15 in. No further changes occurred in furnace design until 1922, when the use of lump coal on grates was abandoned in favor of pulverized coal.

Jan 1, 1932

By J. A. Hafford, J. K. Kerver, J. G. Richardson, P. M. Blair, J. S. Osoba

This paper presents the results of laboratory measurements of relative permeabilities to oil and gas on small core samples of reservoir rock by five methods, and describes the influences of such factors as boundary effect, hysteresis, and rate upon these measurements. The five methods used were the "Penn State," the "single core dynamic," the "gas drive," the "stationary liquid," and the "Hassler" techniques. In those methods in which the results are subject to error hecause of the boundary effect, the error may be minimized hy the use of high rates of flow. In order to avoid complexities introduced by hysteresis, it is necessary to approach each saturation unidirectionally. Observed deviations of relative permeabilities with rate can be explained as a manifestation of the boundary effect, and disappear as the boundary effect vanishes. The results indicate that all five methods yield essentially the same relative permeabilities to gas. Of the four methods applicable to the determination of relative permeability to oil, three, the Penn State, single core dynamic, and gas drive, gave relative permeabilities to oil which were in close agreement. The Hassler method gave relative permeabilities to oil which were consistently lower than the results obtained by the other methods. INTRODUCTION The relationship between the effective permeability of a reservoir rock to each of the fluids flowing through it and the corresponding fluid saturation is an important characteristic of the reservoir rock. Knowledge of this characteristic is and gas reservoirs and of the ultimate recovery to be expected extremely important in the prediction of the behavior of oil under various operating conditions. These effective permeabilities are usually expressed as the "relative permeability" to a fluid phase, defined as the ratio of the effective permeability to the permeability of the rock to a single phase at 100 per cent saturation. Relative permeability-saturation relations are not the same for all kinds of reservoir rock, but may vary from formation to formation, and within the different portions of a heterogeneous formation. In studying the performance of a specific reservoir, it is necessary, then, that the relative permeability characteristics of the individual portions of the reservoir be measured. These measurements may be made in the laboratory on small core samples from the reservoir. Various techniques have been proposed for the measurement in the laboratory of relative permeability-saturation relations. In varying degree, difficulties attend the use of all of the methods which have been proposed. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the factors which influence the measurement of relative permeability, the difficulties encountered in several methods, and to present comparative results obtained by the use of various techniques. FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITY It is necessary that the relative permeability data measured in the laboratory yield the same relative permeability-saturation relationships that would govern the flow of fluids through the sample if it were to occupy its original position in the reservoir. Since the core sample upon which the laboratory measurements are made is not surrounded by similar core material as it was in the reservoir, an error in measuring the relative permeabilities may arise from the "boundary effect" which results from a discontinuity in capillary properties of the system at the effluent end of the core. Again, the rates of

Jan 1, 1951

By Warren J. Jackson, John L. P. Campbell

Automatic recording of the radioactivity of the earth's formations provides a log of relative intensities that, if properly interpreted, can be applied to oil-field engineering. Production, engineering, and geological departments regard the radioactivity log as a forward step in the securing of more conclusive information for successful well completions. Explanations of the technique, together with some of the problems to which radioactivity logging have been applied, are presented in this paper. Introduction Those responsible for the completion of new oil and gas wells, or with planning workover operations on old wells, have followed closely the development of radioactivity well logging because they are interested in reducing the number of unknowns that usually are present in such work. Many operators have made use of the log, or are acquainted with at least one of the applications, but it is unlikely that any one operator is familiar with all of the many applications that are possible. The purpose of this paper is to present a representative example of each of the many applications, wherever the information has been released by an operator, and to illustrate by hypothetical examples other applications, releases for which have not been given. In this way, it is hoped that a better understanding of the scope of this new engineering tool may be obtained. Although the literature contains many references that describe in detail the theory, development, and application of radioactivity well logging, a brief discussion of the technique may be helpful to those who are investigating the subject for the first time. All rocks contain radioactive material in varying concentrations. In general, shales contain relatively more radioactive material than sandstones or limestones. These radioactive materials disintegrate with time into other materials of lower atomic weight, and in that process of disintegration the rocks are emitting many rays, the most penetrating of which is the gamma ray. The intensity of emission of the gamma ray is proportional to the quantities of radioactive materials present. A higher rate of emission would be observed, therefore, opposite a shale than opposite a sandstone or limestone. Since measurable intensities of gamma rays are capable of penetrating as many as five concentric strings of casing, and as the gamma-ray intensity is relative to the formations, the measurements of variations in gamma-ray intensities offer a means of identifying cased-off formations in their proper stratigraphic sequence. The Gamma-ray Curve The measurement of gamma-ray intensities is accomplished by means of an ioniza-tion chamber that consists of a heavy cylinder, about 3 ft. long, that contains two insulated electrodes and is filled with an inert gas under high pressure. Under normal conditions no current will flow through the gas when an electrical potential is set up between the electrodes, but when

Jan 1, 1946

By John L. P. Campbell, Warren J. Jackson

Automatic recording of the radioactivity of the earth's formations provides a log of relative intensities that, if properly interpreted, can be applied to oil-field engineering. Production, engineering, and geological departments regard the radioactivity log as a forward step in the securing of more conclusive information for successful well completions. Explanations of the technique, together with some of the problems to which radioactivity logging have been applied, are presented in this paper. Introduction Those responsible for the completion of new oil and gas wells, or with planning workover operations on old wells, have followed closely the development of radioactivity well logging because they are interested in reducing the number of unknowns that usually are present in such work. Many operators have made use of the log, or are acquainted with at least one of the applications, but it is unlikely that any one operator is familiar with all of the many applications that are possible. The purpose of this paper is to present a representative example of each of the many applications, wherever the information has been released by an operator, and to illustrate by hypothetical examples other applications, releases for which have not been given. In this way, it is hoped that a better understanding of the scope of this new engineering tool may be obtained. Although the literature contains many references that describe in detail the theory, development, and application of radioactivity well logging, a brief discussion of the technique may be helpful to those who are investigating the subject for the first time. All rocks contain radioactive material in varying concentrations. In general, shales contain relatively more radioactive material than sandstones or limestones. These radioactive materials disintegrate with time into other materials of lower atomic weight, and in that process of disintegration the rocks are emitting many rays, the most penetrating of which is the gamma ray. The intensity of emission of the gamma ray is proportional to the quantities of radioactive materials present. A higher rate of emission would be observed, therefore, opposite a shale than opposite a sandstone or limestone. Since measurable intensities of gamma rays are capable of penetrating as many as five concentric strings of casing, and as the gamma-ray intensity is relative to the formations, the measurements of variations in gamma-ray intensities offer a means of identifying cased-off formations in their proper stratigraphic sequence. The Gamma-ray Curve The measurement of gamma-ray intensities is accomplished by means of an ioniza-tion chamber that consists of a heavy cylinder, about 3 ft. long, that contains two insulated electrodes and is filled with an inert gas under high pressure. Under normal conditions no current will flow through the gas when an electrical potential is set up between the electrodes, but when

Jan 1, 1946

Roadheaders have had a chequered history in hard rock excavation in Australia since their introduction into the country in 1972. This has resulted in a poor reputation among both clients and contractors and subsequent reluctance to design tunnels and underground space around their performance characteristics.This has now changed because of the introduction into Australia of a new breed of Roadheader, the Mitsui. This paper sets out the history of development of the Mitsui range of Roadheaders. It describes the process which resulted in the introduction of this new machine, its performance to-date and the characteristics which have contributed to the success of the machine. The combination of these factors have led to a change in attitude to the use of Roadheaders in underground excavations.

Jan 1, 1993

By B. McFadzean, I. Achaye, T. Chidzanira, J. Wiese

"Froth stability has an overriding effect on metallurgical recovery and grade for many ore types. Froth recoveries of less than 10% are common for low stability froths such as those in sparsely mineralized ores or in cells at the back end of flotation circuits. It is well known that, aside from chemical factors such as frothers and electrolytes, the mineral particles themselves have the dominant influence on froth stability. The particle properties of size and hydrophobicity are expected to have the greatest effects on froth stability. The aim of this study was to understand the effects of particle size on froth stability and to quantify these relationships.The study compared a synthetic ore of pyrite and quartz, with carefully controlled size ranges and hydrophobicity, with conventionally milled platinum-bearing UG2 ore and the bulk reverse flotation of hematite ore. A novel bench-scale continuous column flotation cell and continuous mechanical hybrid cell with large relative froth volumes, as well as a three-phase froth stability column were used to characterize the froths.It was found that froth stability could be related to the concentrate particle surface area by a Langmuir-type relationship. This is indicative that the mechanism by which particles stabilize the thin films in froths is similar to the mechanism by which surfactants lower surface tension. Different froth stabilities were found for different ores and this was thought to be the result of different particle sizes and distributions, which resulted in different packing densities in the thin films and Plateau borders. Interestingly, there was a clear relationship between the feed particle size and the froth stability even though froth stability was dependent on the concentrate particle surface area. It seems that the feed particle size is a good predictor of the surface area of particles in the concentrate. Concentrate particle size did not show a clear relationship with froth stability since it was already shown that it is both the size and the amount of the particles in the froth that contribute to the stability.INTRODUCTIONThe stability of the froth in froth flotation is important to the recovery and grade of the valuable mineral. Too stable a froth and the grade is reduced; not stable enough and the recovery may be compromised. Platinum-bearing ores with fragile, poorly mineralised froths are known to have froth recoveries that are routinely less than 10% (Crosbie et al, 2009). There are a number of chemical, physical and operating parameters that can affect froth stability, including reagent dosages, air flow rate, pulp density and particle properties. Arguably, the largest contribution to froth stability is from the particles that stabilise (or destabilise) the thin films in froths. Particle size, hydrophobicity and shape all affect froth stability to some extent."

Jan 1, 2016

By J. K. Kerver, J. S. Osoba, J. G. Richardson, P. M. Blair, J. A. Hafford

This paper presents the results of laboratory measurements of relative permeabilities to oil and gas on small core samples of reservoir rock by five methods, and describes the influences of such factors as boundary effect, hysteresis, and rate upon these measurements. The five methods used were the "Penn State," the "single core dynamic," the "gas drive," the "stationary liquid," and the "Hassler" techniques. In those methods in which the results are subject to error hecause of the boundary effect, the error may be minimized hy the use of high rates of flow. In order to avoid complexities introduced by hysteresis, it is necessary to approach each saturation unidirectionally. Observed deviations of relative permeabilities with rate can be explained as a manifestation of the boundary effect, and disappear as the boundary effect vanishes. The results indicate that all five methods yield essentially the same relative permeabilities to gas. Of the four methods applicable to the determination of relative permeability to oil, three, the Penn State, single core dynamic, and gas drive, gave relative permeabilities to oil which were in close agreement. The Hassler method gave relative permeabilities to oil which were consistently lower than the results obtained by the other methods. INTRODUCTION The relationship between the effective permeability of a reservoir rock to each of the fluids flowing through it and the corresponding fluid saturation is an important characteristic of the reservoir rock. Knowledge of this characteristic is and gas reservoirs and of the ultimate recovery to be expected extremely important in the prediction of the behavior of oil under various operating conditions. These effective permeabilities are usually expressed as the "relative permeability" to a fluid phase, defined as the ratio of the effective permeability to the permeability of the rock to a single phase at 100 per cent saturation. Relative permeability-saturation relations are not the same for all kinds of reservoir rock, but may vary from formation to formation, and within the different portions of a heterogeneous formation. In studying the performance of a specific reservoir, it is necessary, then, that the relative permeability characteristics of the individual portions of the reservoir be measured. These measurements may be made in the laboratory on small core samples from the reservoir. Various techniques have been proposed for the measurement in the laboratory of relative permeability-saturation relations. In varying degree, difficulties attend the use of all of the methods which have been proposed. It is the purpose of this paper to discuss the factors which influence the measurement of relative permeability, the difficulties encountered in several methods, and to present comparative results obtained by the use of various techniques. FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITY It is necessary that the relative permeability data measured in the laboratory yield the same relative permeability-saturation relationships that would govern the flow of fluids through the sample if it were to occupy its original position in the reservoir. Since the core sample upon which the laboratory measurements are made is not surrounded by similar core material as it was in the reservoir, an error in measuring the relative permeabilities may arise from the "boundary effect" which results from a discontinuity in capillary properties of the system at the effluent end of the core. Again, the rates of

Jan 1, 1951

By William W. Wellborn

Abrasives are substances both natural and synthetic that are used to grind, polish, abrade, scour, clean, or otherwise remove solid material usually by rubbing action (as in a grinding wheel), but also by impact (pressure blasting). Facts about the discovery, early use, adaptation, and development of abrasives prior to the 20th century are few. From the sparse, earliest information that is available, it would appear that the science of abrasives began when, to fashion his tools, man began to select certain kinds of rocks in preference to others because of their peculiar properties. There is evidence that stones were sawed by some sort of grinding machine as early as 4000 BC in Egypt. The real expansion of abrasives use coincided with the beginning of metallurgy in the Middle East around 2000 BC. The earliest confirmed use of abrasives for grinding metal comes from a steel dagger found along with a sharpening stone which was dated at about 1500 BC. Natural and manufactured abrasive substances play an important role in fashioning and finishing numerous products with a wide variety of end-use applications. The mining and preparation of crude, natural abrasives for their markets and the manufacture of synthetic and other abrasive materials contribute significantly to the US economy (Table 1). In addition, just as sawing to specific dimensions enhanced the value of the Egyptian stone, the use of abrasives in fabrication of modem products, and the addition of abrasives to others, add value. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS The most important physical properties of materials that qualify as abrasives are hardness, toughness (or rigidity), grain shape and size, character of fracture (or cleavage), and purity (or uniformity). To fabricate bonded abrasive products such as grinding wheels, additional considerations include stability under high heat and bonding characteristics of grain surfaces. The economic factors of cost and availability are always important. No one singular property is paramount for any use. For some applications extreme hardness and toughness are needed, as in diamonds for drill bits. For other uses, factors of greatest importance are hardness and ability to break down slowly and, in the process, develop fresh cutting edges when grains become worn. In garnet sandpaper, for example, highly cleavable, friable, or extremely tough grains are not desirable. For other uses, extreme hardness may be objectionable. Abrasives for dentifrices and for glass-cleaning soaps are cases in point. For the most efficient uses in more critical applications, different types of abrasives are rarely completely interchangeable. While crushed quartz and garnet are both used in sandpaper, the two abrasives are not at all interchangeable in their applications. In the final analysis, the choice of a high-grade abrasive depends upon the quality and quantity of work performed by the abrasive per unit of cost. Initial cost of an artificial abrasive may be much greater than that of a natural abrasive, but the artificial mineral may do so much better work and do it so much faster that the ultimate cost is less. It is for this reason that artificial abrasives have largely replaced natural abrasives.

Jan 1, 1994

Despite the claims of energy efficiency and the considerable development that has gone into dramatically extending rolls? life and facilitating rolls? change-out, in the six years since the last SAG conference, only a few HPGR operations have entered the realm of mineral processing. Risk barriers to the take-up of new equipment or processes are: a massive increase in materials handling issues as well as in the number of pieces of equipment required, low total circuit potential energy savings, and similar or higher capital costs. An alternative route is to make use of the complementary strengths of the HPGR and SAG in hybrid circuits. Minimising materials handling issues, providing an ideal balanced feed to the AG or SAG mill, and improving controllability through shifting grinding load as the RoM feed changes, are all potential major advantages to this approach. Conceptual circuit layouts, based on real measured ore and equipment data, are presented here to illustrate the potential production upside, the reduction in operating costs and the reduction in the physical and energy footprints.

Jan 1, 2012

By J Hudson

Autogenous (AG) and Semi Autogenous (SAG) grinding mills are the conventional selection for large-scale grinding circuits. It is accepted that these forms of comminution are not the most energy efficient available. This efficiency combined with escalating energy prices, steel prices and the requirement to process larger, lower grade deposits has necessitated that better comminution techniques are found to challenge the dominant position of AG/SAG mills in the grinding circuit. Recent advances in high pressure grinding rolls (HPGR), particularly in terms of roll surface protection have meant that, depending on the application, an economic alternative is available to the large diameter AG/SAG mills. Mining companies now recognise the potential benefits of HPGR and so they need proper assessment in the design of new or upgrade of existing grinding processes. Of course, the answer to the question AG/SAG or HPGR is not straightforward and the impact of the grinding process on the whole metallurgical process needs to be evaluated. Clearly this is a complex decision to make and requires substantial metallurgical knowledge, test work, and objective analysis. The perceived downstream processing benefits will differ between different plants depending on the ore type and processing conditions. The optimal design of the comminution circuit requires that a robust methodology is followed to objectively characterise the ore, size the equipment and determine the downstream processing benefits. The paper gives a brief comparison of the capital and operating costs for both grinding systems, and then outlines the appropriate test work that is required to make an informed decision.

Jan 1, 2006

By H. Dudycz, A. Skoczylas, P. Stefaniak, P. Pyda

In the era of Industry 4.0, technologies such as Big Data (BD) and the Internet of Things (IoT) play a key role, especially for multi-site manufacturing companies. In such companies, the challenge is to collect and process massive amounts of data from industrial devices and extract key information from this data in real-time for ad hoc decision-making. The ability to analyse data from industrial devices translates directly into streamlined production processes, cost optimisation, prevention of unplanned events, and safety during operation. In this context, particular attention should be paid to Big Data Analytics (BDA), whose main source is the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT). The purpose of this paper is to propose an IT system architecture incorporating BD and the IoT for a mining company. The paper presents results from a literature review focusing on available BD and the IoT solutions for industry (mining in particular) for the purposes of the acquisition, integration, and advanced analysis of data. The advantages and disadvantages of the different solutions were indicated and gaps in the accessibility to dedicated functionality are identified. Based on the analysis of a multi-site mining company, the main challenges faced by such companies planning to implement BD and IoT solutions are identified. Also, a proposal for an IT system architecture incorporating BD and IoT for a mining company is described in the paper. The contribution of the article consists of the identification of the challenges faced by mining companies planning to implement BD and the IoT solutions, and the proposal of an IT system architecture that allows BDA whose main source is the IIoT.

Sep 1, 2021

By A L. Wills

Cliffs Natural Resources Pty Ltd (Cliffs) operates iron ore mines in the Koolyanobbing region of Western Australia. Ore is mined from three separate hubs and trucked to Koolyanobbing. There it is crushed and screened to lump and fines finished products and railed to Esperance port for export to Asian customers. Cliffs is renowned in the marketplace for its consistent product quality. In 2010, 9 Mt of ore was exported to Asia.Over the last three years, Cliffs has systematically refurbished its product quality system (PQS), to improve efficiency of production while maintaining its high standard of product quality. Particular attention has been given to reducing inventory, which has required significant modifications to the production process design.In redesigning the production process, emphasis was placed on maximising the application of the inherent blending in each of the production process steps and dedicated blending was only introduced where essential. Simulation modelling and statistical analysis of process capabilities were utilised to develop a system that optimises inventory, minimises rehandle, eliminates several decision-making steps and maintains a pull focus throughout the value chain.The new planning functions are now fully integrated and effectively control long-term grade variability rather than relying on long-term stockpiling. The production process design and the daily crusher blend plan are used to control short-term grade variability. With the upgrading of the planning processes the accuracy and consistency of algorithms for lump per cent and lump and fi nes grades became more important and an increased geometallurgical function has been added to the company.The continuous stockpile management system was upgraded to increase the effectiveness of the daily crusher blend planning process and is now the sole intervention point in the production process for grade-based decisions. Grade control systems were modified to utilise advances in software and geostatistics to deliver accurate short range planning models. The reconciliation and sampling systems have also been refurbished with an emphasis on practical application and feedback loops.Accountability and transparency are provided by management reports that are generated from a centralised data warehouse and the introduction of a corrective action system. Standardised reports are available to all stakeholders and a quarterly KPI scorecard assists the management review process.The successful rejuvenation of the PQS has culminated in operational efficiency through the implementation of an integrated end-to-end process flow. Shareholder value is maximised through maximising recovery of the resource and minimising costs. Customer focus is maintained by reliably delivering product with acceptable and low grade variability.

Jul 11, 2011

By J. B. Hiskey, G. Ramadorai

This paper presents the kinetics of leaching pure wulfenite (PbMoO,) with sodium sulfide solutions. Wulfenite dissolves in the presence of sulfide ion according to the following reaction: PbMoO , + S= PbS + MOO;. Synthetic galena is formed and molybdenum is released to solution as molybdate ion. The reaction follows the shrinking core model and the leaching mechanism involves mixed kinetics where both diffusion and chemical reaction are rate controlling. Molybdenum extraction is explained in terms of temperature, particle size, and sodium sulfide concentration.

Jan 1, 1977

By Robert L. Martin, Brian W. Stump, David P. Anderson, David Gross

In an attempt to better understand the impact that large mining shots will have on verifying compliance with the international, worldwide, Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT, no nuclear explosion tests), a series of seismic and videographic experiments has been conducted during the past two years at the Black Thunder Coal Mine. Personnel from the mine and Los Alamos National Laboratory have cooperated closely to design and perform experiments to produce results with mutual benefit to both organizations. This paper will summarize our activities, highlighting the unique results of each.

Jan 1, 1997

By Q. G. Reynolds

The dual-electrode DC arc furnace, an alternative design using an anode and cathode electrode instead of a hearth anode, was studied at small scale using computational modelling methods. Particular attention was paid to the effect of two key design variables, the arc length and the electrode separation, on the furnace behaviour. It was found that reducing the arc length to brush arc conditions was a valid means of overcoming several of the limitations of the dual-electrode design, namely high voltages and arc deflection.

Jan 1, 2012