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By L. C. Uren, E. J. Bradshaw

This paper presents the results of a group effort by a number of University of California students and faculty members, and the authors attach their names primarily in the capacity of editors and interpreters of the data thus assembled. In addition to the writers, the following individuals have made substantial contributions in time and effort in the conduct of this research: Dr. A. J. Carlson, Associate Professor of Petroleum Engineering; J. E. Gosline, University Research Assistant; C. F. Bedford, G. W. Mikulasek and H. S. Conder, senior and graduate petroleum engineering students; H. Bachman, G. Spencer and G. W. Gard, mechanicians in the Department of Mining and Metallurgy. Acknowledgment is also due the Research Board of the University, the Department of Mining and Metallurgy, and Prof. F. H. Probert, Dean of the College of Mining, for continued cooperation in securing mechanical assistance and funds for the purchase and assembly of apparatus. Significance of the Pressure Gradient The expulsion of petroleum from its reservoir sand doubtless is due to expanding natural gas intimately associated with the oil, to the hydrostatic pressure of encroaching edge waters, and to gravitational influences. These forces may operate independently or collectively. In any case they subject the fluids stored within the reservoir sands to elevated pressures, thus causing movement of oil and gas through the productive formations toward the lower pressure of the well outlets. This movement is opposed by pore friction, capillarity and adhesion: resisting influences brought to bear by the reservoir sand on the moving fluids. The magnitude of the resisting force is influenced directly by the viscosity, surface tension and density of the oil, as well as by the properties of the gas. The more rapid the rate of flow, the greater will be the resistance offered, and the greater will be the energy consumed.

Jan 1, 1932

By Graham Bright

METAL mines were developed long before coal mines and the early lighting of underground workings was effected by torches and candles. The early coal mines were outcrop workings and little trouble was experienced from gas, but as the mines became deeper and shaft mines were opened it became apparent that an open-flame lamp was exceed-ingly dangerous where gas occurred. No satisfactory way of lighting gaseous coal mines was found until Sir Humphrey Davy brought out his famous safety lamp in 1815. The introduction of the Davy lamp was a great step forward but it was unsatisfactory from a light standpoint because the gauze absorbed a large percentage of the light given out by the flame. Clanny corrected this by the introduction of a cylindrical glass lens, which not only per-mitted a free distribution of the light from the flame but added greatly to the safety by eliminating the possibility of the flame coming in contact with the gauze and by protecting the flame against air currents. A very complete story of the flame safety lamp since its inception is given in the U. S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin No. 227, by J. W. Paul, L. C. Ilsley and E. J. Gleim, published in 1924. A little more recent publication, known as Safety in Mines Research Board Paper No. 4, entitled "The Light Power of Flame Safety Lamps," by R. V. Wheeler and D. W. Woodhead, was published in England in 1927. The flame safety lamp was the-only lamp available for gaseous mines for about 100 years. Although the incandescent electric lamp has been in use over 50 years, it was not found safe to use this lamp from wired circuits in gaseous locations. The storage battery was advocated shortly after the develop-ment of the incandescent lamp but until the introduction of the tungsten filament in the miniature mine-lamp bulb, the battery lamp was not a real possibility because of the excessive weight of the battery necessary to produce a sufficient amount of light. The actual development of the electric-battery type of lamp took place largely between 1910 and 1915. In England and Europe, the development was almost entirely along the

Jan 1, 1935

By S. A. Abdel Sabour

Strategic decisions in the mining industry are made under multiple technical and market uncertainties. Therefore, to reach the best possible decision, based on information available, it is necessary to integrate uncertainty about the input variables and model financial risk of the project?s merit measures. However, this provides few useful insights to decision-makers unless accompanied by modelling management responses to uncertainty resolutions. It is widely acknowledged that conventional decision-support methods based on static, no-change, discounted cash flow (DCF) techniques such as net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR) tend to provide inaccurate value estimates. This could mislead the strategic decision-making process and result in significant value losses. This paper aims to model financial risk related to uncertainty about market variables such as metal prices and foreign exchange rates. Other sources of risk that are related, for example, to geology and production costs are not considered in this work. The article outlines a flexible financial model that integrates uncertainty about market variables and management flexibility to react to uncertainty resolutions into mine project valuation using a real-options valuation technique based on Monte Carlo simulation. Significance of information generated from this simulation-based flexible valuation model to the strategic decision-making process is tested using an illustrative case study of a Canadian mining project. The project is a typical multi-metal, open pit mine that produces copper and gold. In this case, there are three uncertain market variables, which are: copper and gold prices and US$/CAN$ exchange rate. Financial valuations are carried out using both the conventional static DCF method and a flexible real-options model. In the flexible model, management flexibility to decide whether to go ahead with the next expansion or terminate production operations is integrated. Results show how the flexible financial model can enhance the decision-making process.

Jan 1, 2009

By Sarat C. Rubra

Geographically, British India includes India or Hindustan proper, Burma, and a part of Beluchistan. In ancient times India occupied a very important position anlong the producers of minerals and metals; in fact, as late as the middle of the seventeenth century, it contributed a very considerable quota of the mineral and metal supplies of the world. The branches of the industry worthy of special note are gold, silver, lead, antimony, copper, iron, diamonds and other precious stones. The famous " Damascus steel" was originally manufactured in India, Damascus being only a mart; and it is interesting to note that even at the present time this product is still made in India. Prior to the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in 1728, India was the sole producer of this important mineral; and while no diamond-mines are now systematically worked, fine specimens are occasionally reported to be found in river-beds and in alluvial diggings. For ages, nearly all of the minerals of present commercial value have been produced and worked in India, and many of the deposits may still play an important part in the world's mining and mineral history. Despite the patient work of the ancient Indians, the limited knowledge they possessed of pumping and ventilation precluded the possibility of attaining any great depth in mining. Under special conditions, shafts have been sunk to 600 ft., but the average depth was much less. As a result of this limitation, the ancient miners confinecl their work to the available ores in sight, leaving large bodies of ore intact, which can be profitably worked with modern methods of mining. As an evidence of this statement may be mentioned the mines of the Kolar gold-fields in Mysore, which have reached in some shafts a. depth exceeding 2,400 ft. Traces of ancient work in these

Jan 1, 1904

By James W. Shaffer

Aluminum is the most abundant metallic element of the earth's crust and is a constituent of nearly every type of rock (Clark, 1924, p. 13). The sources of aluminum and aluminous material most commonly used by modern industry are the bauxitic raw materials consisting of bauxite, bauxitic clay, and aluminous laterites. These are mixtures of hydrated aluminum oxide minerals and mineral impurities. End Uses Bauxite is used as an aluminum ore and in the manufacture of refractory products, aluminous chemicals, and abrasives. Other raw materials are used for aluminum ores, but their use is minor compared to bauxite. Refractory products made from bauxite are synthetic mullite, high-alumina fire bricks, castables, monoliths, cements, and ramming mixes used by the iron, steel, and cement industries. Chemicals made from bauxite are aluminum sulfate and sodium aluminate for water treatment and aluminum chloride used in refining crude petroleum. Among the abrasive products made from bauxite are coated abrasives, sharpening stones, and grinding wheels. Special grades of bauxite are used in the decolorization and clarification of raw sugar and lubricating oils. Bauxite has been used for road surfacing but mainly because other material was not more readily available. Perhaps the oldest use of bauxite and aluminous laterite is for a building stone. Ancient temples and more recent structures in India have been made from these and some varieties are suitable for decorative stone. Geology Mineralogy and Properties – Bauxite is a mineral raw material composed principally of one or more hydrated aluminum oxide minerals and impurities of silica, iron oxide, titania and elements in minor or trace amounts. The hydrated aluminum oxide minerals are gibbsite, boehmite and diaspore. Corundum is not included as a bauxite mineral although it does occur in some bauxite deposits. Boehmite and diaspore are both alumina mono-hydrates and have essentially the same composition, but diaspore has a greater hardness and a higher specific gravity because of a more tightly bonded and compacted atomic structure. Gibbsite is an alumina trihydrate mineral. Properties of bauxite minerals are shown in [Table 1].

Jan 1, 1975

The Mary Kathleen uranium deposit occurs in 1740-1780 M yr-old calc-silicate melasedimentary and mela-igneous rocks of lhe Corella Formalion which have been tightly folded into lhe Mary Kathleen Syncline. The Corella Formation consists of malic and felsic tuffaceous(?) calc-silicates, quartzile, and minor marble, conglomerate and basic volcanics. Garnet-rich rocks form semi-concordant and transgressive masses in the middle and upper portion of the sequence. Granite, gabbro and acid porphyry dykes also occur in the syncline.Uranium-rare earth mineralisation is closely associated with certain malic rocks and occurs wilhin or close to garnet-rich masses. At Mary Kathleen, uraninite grains are enclosed mainly by allanite which is dislribuled through massive garnet as an irregular honeycomb of interconnected shoot and lenses. The mineralisation occurs along strike from dioritic rocks and conglomerate and lies close to the axis of the Mary Kathleen yncline and adjacent to a major faull zone. All other localities allanite-uraninile mineralisation is broadly stratiform.The mineralisation is interpreted to occur at or near centres of basic volcanism. Garnet formation and uranium-rare earth concentrations are believed to be caused by the volcanism, and to be contemporaneous with it. The former is seen as alteration of a hot, saturated pile of volcano-sedimentary material and the latter as intermittent hydrothermal exhalation.Deposition, volcanism, garnet formation, uranium and rare-earth mineralisation, granile and gabbro formation, and tectonism are seen as a continuum of interrelated processes which operated throughout the period of format ion of the rocks in the Mary Kathleen Syncline.

Jan 1, 1985

By James T. Kemp

SOME interesting and, to American eyes, rather unusual processes for refining impure aluminum derived from scraps were found by American and British investigators who went into Germany in 1945 for the Technical Industrial Intelligence Committee Of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. What was found was recorded in a series of reports (see page 14), many of which have been released for general reading. This paper gathers under one title and summarizes the German work in refining light metal scrap. Reference must be made to the original reports for greater detail. Basically, the occasion and stimulus for the German developments in treating light metal scrap were hard necessity. Germany needed the metal for a rapacious war industry. Adequate supplies of new aluminum from reduction works were not assured. Great quantities of airplane and other light metal war scraps were forecast. It was evident that the scrap metal would have to be reabsorbed by the producing industry and would have to be kept of good quality. The normal current production of manufacturing scrap was being and could be consumed as generated. It offered no technical problem. The mixed scraps, especially those arising from crashed and decommissioned airplanes, however, presented problems of another kind. AIRPLANE SCRAP The recovery of usable aluminum alloy from the mixed assemblies that made up the piles of airplane scrap was attacked in different ways by different groups and with differing degrees of success. Three procedures actually were used On a commercial scale, one was in pilot-plant stage and another had come to a halt in the laboratory a year before Germany collapsed. Four of these five processes actually involved "refining"; that is, some measure of purification of the metal after melting. SORTING AND SEPARATION ON A SLOPING HEARTH The simplest procedure for utilizing airplane scrap involved no refining in the strict sense of the word. This was the practice adopted by two representative plants visited by the author, the Leipziger Leichtmetalle Werke, Rackwitz, Saxony, and the Vereinigte Leichtmetalle Werke, Hanover. These firms did essentially the same thing that was done in England but not with equal success, to judge by their shorter experience, the smaller tonnage handled and by the number and quality of alloys produced. The two German firms named rough-sorted scraps by their easily recognizable alloys, essentially by part and shape. They used hand labor to chop and hack and tear apart. The easily separated heavy metal and nonmetallic scraps were discarded as they were found. Steel and the higher-melting-point metal parts riveted to aluminum or built into

Jan 1, 1947

The key functions of project evaluation are to assess potential profitability and to develop an effective operational design. For mining projects, design aspects include mining methodology, ore treatment methodology and production rates. All of these characteristics impact on project economics and overall value. Resource models, which form the ultimate basis of project evaluation, typically consist of tonnes above cut-off, grade above cut-off and the spatial distribution (connectivity) of tonnes/grade above cut-off, for one or more variables. Dilution, ore loss and metallurgical recovery are all modifying factors applied to the resource model during evaluation and determination of profitability. A key issue is: how is the value determined? In addition to traditional combination of in situ tonnes/grade, the following merit serious consideration: the concentration of deleterious elements, throughput rates, mining/processing costs and - importantly - metallurgical recovery. Geometallurgy is an emerging field targeted at integrating these issues by identifying either direct measures or proxies for throughput (hardness, grindability), recovery (liberation, mineral shape/texture, etc) and concentrate quality from easily collected macro-, meso- and microscopic data. These 'geometallurgical variables' drive project costs and revenues in a fundamental way. For geometallurgical characterisation to have a real impact on business design, it must enable improved mine planning. When creating spatial estimates for such variables, it is preferable to find proxies that can be measured as close to the intact rock mass as possible. However, spatial estimation of proxies for geometallurgical properties and responses is complex and requires special consideration. Unlike grades, both proxies and absolute measures of geometallurgical variables are not necessarily linear or additive and therefore require very careful geostatistical consideration. In some cases, models must predict extreme values of geometallurgical attributes rather than averages. Incorrect characterisation of metallurgical recovery/throughput can (and has) led to misspecification of the scale of projects, and thus can be seriously value destructive. Aspects of geometallurgy have long been important in iron, bauxite, manganese and coal deposits and are increasingly on the radar for base and precious metal miners. However, as more metallurgically complex deposits are developed and mining of large-scale, low-grade deposits becomes more commonplace, the importance of characterising the metallurgical response in order to generate properly optimised projects will rapidly increase. It is possible that in many `traditional' (ie grades and tonnes) reserve models, the variables that drive the project are missing!

Jan 1, 2007

By Nye P. B, Fisher N. H

At the second Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress held in 1927, the Empire Council of Mining and Metallurgical Institutions was formed and it was proposed that the Council take steps to prepare a "Review of the Mineral Resources and Industries of the Empire." At the third congress in 1930, it was resolved that the proposal to institute the review should be submitted to the Imperial Conference held in 1930. This was done, and the Minerals Committee, of the Imperial Economic Committee compiled, an interimreport which was based on statistics of imports and exports, and did not consider resources and consumption.In 1942 the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, wrote to the Empire Council and stated that it was desirable that the Council should be in a position to take part in decisions affecting the future of the mining and metallurgical industries. The Council communicated with the constituent Institutions regarding the nominations of two members then in England. Subsequently the Mining, Geological and Metallurgical ,Institute of India prepared a review of the mineral resources and industries of India and their post-war development, and the Empire Council forwarded a copy to the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy and asked if that Institute would submit a review on simjIar lines for Australia. The Australasian Institute arranged that the Australian review should be prepared by...

Jan 1, 1946

By Charles V. Riley

While the late 1960's are known as the years of the public recognition of impending environmental crises, the 1970's will be known as the decade of public concern for improving the quality of that environment. One of the major environmental concerns is the temporary disturbance resulting from coal surface or open cast mining. Increasing energy demands in the U.S., a doubling of electrical power consumption each decade during the present century and the projected needs for the remainder of the century are indications that coal surface mining as a major extractive industry will continue. Coal and lignite, prime energy resources and extremely abundant in these United States, in the face of seemingly limited gas, oil and uranium reserves, are both destined for expanded future use. Presently some extremely serious technological and environmental problems are associated with the development and use of nuclear power. It is true that the extraction and use of coal as an energy fuel poses disruptive problems for the environment, but the solutions to many of the problems are known or can he solved within a reasonable time framework Certainly our national well-being and continued survival as a free nation within the world community automatically dictate the continued use of the coal resource for energy. Concurrently, those engaged in coal surface mining, with the temporary disturbance of the land and water resources, must also realistically conclude that public concern for maintaining and improving the quality of the environment will not diminish. Although as ecological, economic, social and aesthetic elements of cost-benefits and human desires are more adequately understood, a more rational and reasonable public and governmental attitude hopefully will result.

Jan 3, 1973

By Scott G. Britton

Traditionally, water removal has taken a backseat to many other coal mining functions. However, it is a vital part of the total mine support system. In many US coal mines, more tons of water are removed each year than tons of coal. An excellent discussion of general drainage characteristics can be found in Chapter 8 of Elements of Practical Coal Mining, published by SME-AIME. This chapter is organized into three major sections. These are: designing effective drainage systems; constructing the main mine pumping station (static system); and constructing a portable pumping station (dynamic system). Each topic presents a separate discussion of the elements a construction foreman or engineer should consider for effective installation and operation of the mine drainage system. In addition, a list of pumping equipment manufacturers is available to interested persons and follows these sections.

Jan 1, 1983

By A D. Paktunc

The surface reactivity of underwater deposited, high-sulfide copper mine tailings was evaluated under fresh and saline water cover conditions by measuring the surface and pore water quality as a function of time. The experiments were conducted in aquarium type lysimeters having a shallow, well-aerated water cover up to approximately 0.25 m over the tailings. Natural lake water was used for the fresh water cover and seawater for the saline water cover scenarios. The tailings showed significant surface reactivity and oxidation under both fresh and saline water cover conditions. The surface water quickly became moderately to highly acidic, and surface oxidation of the tailings resulted in increased dissolution and release of sulfates, iron (total), calcium, magnesium, aluminium, manganese, copper, nickel, zinc, lead, cobalt and silicon to the water covers. A moderate to slightly increased loss of total sulfides, including pyrite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite, occurred in the tailings surface layer to a very shallow depth. In comparison to the fresh water cover, the complete acidification of the saline water cover was delayed by approximately 30 - 40 days because of its additional available alkalinity. Whereas the rate of surface water acidification and release of aluminium and silicon were moderately reduced under saline water cover conditions in comparison to those for the fresh water cover, the release of calcium, magnesium, iron (total), copper, nickel, lead, zinc, sodium and potassium were enhanced. The mass transfer fluxes for dissolved copper, nickel lead, zinc and iron (total) from the tailings substrate to the surface water cover following surface water acidification were higher by 50 per cent or more in the saline water cover than those in the fresh water cover. This release was also reflected in moderate loss of pyrite, chalcopyrite and sphalerite in the very shallow upper surface layer of the tailings at the tailings-water interface, although the loss of pyrite in the surface layer was less pronounced. In both cases, the dissolution of aluminosilicate minerals moderated, to a certain extent, pH and acidity in the water cover.

Jan 1, 2003

By H. H. Uhlig

In our study of the mechanism of and the prevention of corrosion in stainless steels, it was considered of fundamental importance to obtain knowledge of the surface structure of such alloys. If corrosion resistance is due to a self-healing oxide layer, which like a paint film protects the underlying metal, it would be obviously relevant were the effort made to make the film less permeable and more adherent; for example, the surface might be expected to respond to an anodizing process, which is found successful in increasing the film thickness and corrosion resistance of aluminum. However, if passivity and corrosion resistance of stainless steels are due to another cause, the attack of the problem would follow another path. One of the most effective techniques for studying passivity and corrosion tendency is the measurement of the electrochemical potential. Not only can one determine by potential measurements whether a metal is active or passive, but also one can determine the degree of passivity and rate of transformation of passivity with time. Chemical media that build up or destroy passivity when in contact with the steel can also be classified by potential measurements. Something can be learned, too, of the effect of alloy additions such as molybdenum to 18-8, known to decrease corrosion of the alloy in chloride solutions. A study of alloys in previous investigations has sometimes included data on the electrochemical potentials. Tammann and Sotterl measured the electrochenlical potentials of alloys of iron-molybdenum and iron-chromium and reperted the critical concentration of molybdenum or chromium at which passivity initiates. Strauss2 made similar measurements for the iron-chromium system. The electrochemical potential3 has also been used to indicate carbide precipitated 18-8. In 18-8, heat-treated to precipitate carbide, active metal exists at the region of the grain boundaries, contrasted with passive metal within the grains, the active metal accounting for a resultant active potential. Several

Jan 1, 1940

By Jack A. Caldwell

Jan 1, 1985

By Maurilio Pereira Gomes

The aim of this work was to heat treat and characterize sintered valve seat inserts (VSI). The powder metallurgy route was the only way found to substitute cobalt and lead, used in the VSI original alloy, due to their high cost and toxicological effect, respectively. The studied VSI was obtained with AISI M2 high-speed steel powder mixed with iron powder and other additives such as manganese sulphide, graphite, zinc stearate, carbides and copper, which was added by metallic infiltration. All the VSI were air quenched and double tempered, for one hour each, at seven different equidistantly temperatures, ranging from 100 °C up to 700 °C. The physical and mechanical properties were evaluated by means of the VSI apparent density, apparent hardness and crush radial strength. The chemical composition was determined through gas analysis, for the light elements such as carbon and sulfur, and energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry for other elements. Microstructural characterization was performed with the support of scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy. Regarding the VSI final application, the best results were achieved with the inserts air quenched and double tempered at 600 °C.

Oct 30, 2017

By Peter Beardmore, Michael B. Bever

The effects of the temperature of deformation and the degvee of deformation on the annealing spectrum of a Au-Ag alloy have been determined by vesistance measurements. Specimens were deformed in torsion at 4°, 78K and room temperature up to strains nd/l of about 1.0 and were isochronally annealed. Discrete annealing stages similar to those found for pure metals were observed. Stage A occurred below room temperature; the decrease in reszstance associated with this stage increased as the temperature of deformation was lowered or the strain was increased. Stage B manifested itself as an increase in resistance; this is attributed to the restoration of short-range order promoted by vacancy or vacancy aggregate migration. At temperatures above 48S0K, recrystallization or Stage C occurred. Stages A, B, and C in the annealzng curves of this alloy may be considered to correspond to Stages II, Ill, and V, respectively, in the terminology used to describe the annealing spectrum of pure metals. ThE annealing behavior after deformation below room temperature has been thoroughly investigated on pure metals, in particular gold and copper. The occurrence of several discrete stages in the annealing spectrum of these metals has been established, but the interpretation of some of these stages in terms of specific mechanisms is still controversial.' The annealing of alloys deformed below room temperature has been the subject of only a few investigations. In the investigation reported here, a Au-Ag alloy was annealed after deformation at and below room temperature. This continues a research program on the deformation and annealing behavior of Au-Ag alloys.2-8s EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE An alloy rod of composition 82.6 wt pct Au-17.4 pct Ag was reduced to wire, 0.0428 in. diam, by swaging and drawing. After a recrystallization treatment, the grain size was 0.031 mm, as obtained from the average linear intercept.7 The ends of wires about 6 in. long were flattened and sealed into short brass tubes with cold setting cement to form the grips of the torsion specimens. The equipment used for deformation has been described elsewhere.6 The specimens were deformed at room temperature, 78", and 4°K to various strains nd/l, where n is the number of turns, d the diameter of the specimen, and 1 its length between grips. The strain rate ?max was 0.1 min-' at the sur- face of the specimen except where noted otherwise. The specimens were annealed isochronally for 30 min at intervals of approximately 30°K from the temperature of deformation to approximately 800°K, except that after deformation at 4°K the lowest annealing temperature was 78°K. A potentiometric method was used to measure the resistance: all measurements were made at 78°K with the exception of some measurements at 4°K mentioned below. Data obtained with a single specimen yielded a complete annealing curve: in several cases duplicate specimens were used to confirm the reproducibility of the curves. Since the surfaces of the specimens were rough after deformation, their diameters could not be measured accurately. The resistance increments after deformation and annealing are therefore reported as percentages of the resistance of the same specimen measured after completion of the annealing, that is, after full recrystallization. The corresponding resistivity values can be calculated by obtaining the effective diameter of a deformed specimen from the ratio of its resistance after recrystallization to the true resistivity, which was determined with a smooth specimen of known dimensions. This method of calculation was used to obtain data shown in several of the figures. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The isochronal annealing curves after deformation to various strains at 4", 78K, and room temperature are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The resistance increment of the as-deformed specimens as a function of strain is shown in Fig. 4. For the specimens deformed at 4°K. values measured at 78°K are plotted with the exception of those for the as-deformed

Jan 1, 1970

By Thomas Novak, Philip Johnson, Richard L. Sanford, Lloyd A. Morley

Macintosh use in mine-planning applications lags DOS machines since many users have made significant investments in hardware and training for other environments. Macintosh use is becoming more pronounced in many other industries, and com soft-ware is of at least the quality of that available for DOS machines and many workstations. This paper describes attributes of the Macintosh computer family as related to many mine-planning problems and solutions including software, memory considerations, workstations, DOS compatibility, and networking.

Jan 1, 1993

By P. A. Tichauer

Arbitration is a flexible method for dispute resolution that gives control to the disputing parties while still maintaining a clear and well-structured decision making process. It responds to the desires of the parties for a resolution that is fair, binding and enforceable and is guided more by pragmatism, efficiency, effectiveness and equality than by a need to comply with the legal procedures and practices of any single country or jurisdiction. Arbitration is particularly well suited for the resolution of disputes pertaining to international commercial agreements which are often present in the metallurgical sector. This paper provides a simplified outline of the features and advantages of arbitration as well as commentary regarding certain prerequisites in order for arbitration to be binding and enforceable.

Jan 1, 2015

By S. A. Platias

Large amounts of dunile tailings can be recycled for olivine produdion from the existing beneficiation adivity of chromite ore in northern Greece. This olivine production aims at the preparation of a material suitable for the substitution of the environmental hazardous quartz sand in the foundries of Europe In smelting of chromite ore the losses that occur ore usually of the order of 6-8% Cr that report in the slag. Most of this is in the form of oxides that cannot be recovered, but usually 30-35% is in the form of FeCr alloy that can be recovered by gravity methods. About 90% of the produced slag is sold for road construdion after crushing to a desired grain size. Finally, recycling of chromites sludges from the ferrochrome produdion plant, through the preparation of pellets, improved the total chromite yield by 2%.

Jan 1, 1996

By Charles G. Zink

Early anthracite "deep mining" methods, production, manpower. underground transportation, labor, safety and reserves are reviewed and compared to the present and to future requirements which must be met in order to economically win the fourteen million tons of untapped reserves and to keep the product competitive in the market place.

Jan 1, 1971