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By C. O. Dale, W. J. Rundle

THE upper Mississippi Valley zinc-lead area was the first major lead producing section in the United States. The lead ore, found near the surface in crevices, was relatively pure galena that could be smelted directly into lead, at first in log hearth furnaces and later in more efficient blast type furnaces. French Canadian fur traders encouraged the Indians to mine the lead ore and showed them how to smelt it into lead that had a high value for bullets.1 Nicholas Perrot found lead ore on the Mississippi River bluffs near the junction of Wisconsin and Illinois and in 1690 established a trading post on the Wisconsin side of the river opposite the present site of Dubuque, Iowa.2 Shortly after 1720 discovery of Mine La Mott in Missouri diverted considerable attention from the Upper Mississippi area. Mining continued on a desultory basis with operations concentrated in the Galena, Illinois-Dubuque, area. In 1740 at least 20 miners were at work in the Fever River area around Galena and are reported to have shipped 2500 70-lb pigs of lead to Kaskaskia in 1741.3 Julien Dubuque established a mining and smelting operation in 1790 near the city that bears his name 'and was granted sole right to exploit the mining operations on the lands of the Sauk and the Fox Indians. He is reported to have produced 30,000 70-lb pigs of lead in 1805. Following the death of Dubuque in 1810 the Indians refused to let the white miners enter their lands, and little was done on the Iowa side of the river until the Indians were removed by treaty with the United States government in 1832.4 Early mining was entirely for lead but as the crevices were followed down, increasing percentages of zinc sulphide and zinc carbonate were encountered and at first discarded. Later a market became available for the zinc ores, and hand jigging devices were made to separate the lead," the zinc, and the rock or waste materials. The first record of zinc production from -the area is for 1860. Production of zinc passed that of lead before 1900, reached a peak of 64,000 short tons' in 1917, fell off rapidly and continually to about 2000 short tons in 1938, and since 1940 has ranged from 11,000 to 19,000 short tons. Lead has been of considerably less importance since 1900, and at present only about 10 pct as much lead as zinc is produced. Practically all of the zinc ore has come from orebodies that are rather flat and wide with, considerable length as compared to width. Most of the early lead came from the crevice type deposit, but present production is from the predominately flat zinc orebodies. The Graham-Snyder orebody, scene of Eagle Picher operations, is practically all zinc with little or no lead being recovered. Marcasite, present in varying amounts, makes production of finished concentrates by gravity separation impractical. Satisfactory lead and zinc concentrates have been produced since flotation was introduced in the area in 1927. An acid recovery plant was operated for about 20 years after World War I, but it has been dismantled, and no recovery of the iron sulphides in the ores of the district is being made at the present time. In June 1950 there were three companies operating mines and mills, Tri-State Zinc Co., Calumet & Hecla Consolidated Copper Co., and Eagle Picher Mining and Smelting Co. The Vinegar Hill Zinc Co. had completed a shaft at a new orebody and had started to develop the mine which will supply the Cuba City mill. The Cuba Mining Co. was holding the Andrews Mine inactive. The Dodgeville Mining Co. was not operating but was exploring for additional reserves. Several small mines were selling ore to the Eagle Picher mill. A general area map is given in Fig. 1. The Eagle Picher Mining and Smelting Co. entered the area in 1946 with an active exploration campaign. Leases on a block basis were secured for the area south from the Wisconsin-Illinois line near

Jan 1, 1952

By J. M. Blank, V. A. Russell

When the nucleation of silicon on a sapphire substrate is accomplished by gradually decreasing the substrate temperature while subjecting it to a constant impingement rate of hydrogen and silicon tetrachloride, the resulting deposit is characterized by widely separated islands of silicon scattered over an "open sea" of sapphire. Analysis shows that nucleation takes place mainly on sites of large adsorption energy, about 85 kcal per mole, and small surface concentration, about 108 cm-2. Crystal growth proceeds rapidly on these nuclei and results in enough depletion of Sicl4 from the ambient gas to suppress further nucleation. The technological importance of single-crystal films on dielectric substrates has prompted considerable work on the deposition of silicon on sapphire. This paper is concerned with the deposition of silicon, by the reduction of silicon tetrachloride with hydrogen, onto heated sapphire substrates. The apparatus consisted of a temperature-controlled container for the silicon tetrachloride along with gas lines and flow meters necessary to convey a hydrogen-silicon tetrachloride mixture to a reaction chamber constructed of quartz tubing. Heat for the substrate was provided by means of an inductively heated graphite susceptor. The observations pertinent to the present discussion were made with an American Optical Co. high-temperature microscope which allowed us to make motion pictures of the deposition process at a magnification of approximately 50 times. Two main categories of experiments were carried out: one on determination of critical condensation temperatures and the other on the deposition of epitaxial silicon films on the sapphire substrates. Critical condensation temperatures were determined in the traditional way by raising the substrate temperature well above that at which condensation could be expected at the impingement rates being studied and then gradually lowering the temperature until the condensation of the first silicon was observed. This was done initially with ellipsometry-type detection but it was soon discovered that the deposits were occurring as widely separated islands and groups of islands scattered over an "open sea" of sapphire. We have called these archipelago formations. They were most easily detected by optical microscopy. Data gathered from experiments of this type have been collected in Table I. Motion pictures of the formation of archipelago patterns show that the nucleation period lasts about 10 sec if the substrate temperature and impingement rate are kept constant. Essentially all of the nuclei are formed in a few seconds and all subsequent silicon deposition merely adds to the size of the established nuclei. After an archipelago formation has matured at a given substrate temperature and impingement rate, it is very difficult to stimulate any further nucleation in the open space between islands. Lowering the substrate temperature will occasionally stimulate nucleation but increasing the impingement rate hardly ever produces any more new nuclei. It should also be emphasized that the nucleation rates appear to be very small, about 104 cm-2 sec-1. They will receive special attention in the analysis section. Another series of experiments was performed employing a systematic variation of substrate temperatures and impingement rates approximating those expected to produce epitaxy. Sapphire substrates with surfaces normal to the 2233 direction were used. In contrast to the procedure that produces archipelago patterns, these films were deposited by raising the substrate temperature to a desired value at which time the silicon tetrachloride and hydrogen flow was begun. Of course, these depositions produced mainly films that were continuous. After removal from the deposition chamber, the substrate and silicon film were examined microscopically to determine the nature of the deposit and by X-ray diffraction to determine the extent to which a single-crystal film had been achieved. Results of these experiments are summarized in Table 11. Of interest for the present analysis is the fact that epitaxy appears to be confined to a fairly narrow temperature range between about 1050" and 1150°C. This also will be discussed in the analysis section. ANALYSIS In this section we shall apply nucleation theory to the data presented above with the objective of testing

Jan 1, 1967

A. G. Cockbain—The paper by Burlingame, Bitsianes and Joseph is of great interest in extending the work done on high grade sinters, particularly that of Hessle, and the development and application to them of the technique of McBriar, Johnson, Andrews and Davies on ironstone sinters. In this laboratory the work of McBriar et al. has also been continued and extended to cover high grade sinters, and a sectioning technique similar to that used by McBriar et al. was attempted on sinter cakes made in the laboratory sinter unit, using magnetite concentrates (containing 64 pct Fe). In these experiments no attempt was made to flush out the products of combustion with nitrogen before cooling. It was considered that free air penetration would occur on only a limited scale with the size of sinter cake made (14 in. sq x 12 in. deep). Chemical analyses of the zones showed generally similar features of those described by Burlingame et al. and especially the FeO rich region at and just behind the flame front, i.e. zones of ignition and combustion. This seems to indicate that the nitrogen atmosphere does not materially affect the states of oxidation in the sinter cake or at least that special care is not required unless the sinter cake is small. Burlingame et al. consider that FeO present has some significant part to play in the mechanism of sintering. This view does not find favor with the author. The reduction of iron oxides in the presence of red hot coke is a well known phenomenon, whether conducted in an atmosphere of nitrogen or in a crucible in air, and in view of the presence of some carbon in the hot sinter, especially just at the ignition zone, cessation of the progress of the flame front will in no way affect the reduction of iron oxides near hot coke. Even in a nitrogen atmosphere some CO and CO, will be generated by reduction and by continual oxidation and reduction of CO as the transfer agent, the oxidation state of the iron oxides can be lowered quite rupidly so long as free carbon exists with enough heat. Knowing the composition of the gas at the flame front (obtainable by probes), it would be possible to calculate the static oxidation state of Fe2O3/Fe3O2 in equilibrium with it and hence obtain a check on the chemical analyses to see if in fact direct reduction of the Fe2O3/Fe2O1 to FeO has taken place. Have the authors attempted this? It appears to this writer that what is required is some means of reducing rapidly the heat content of the ignition zone and immediately behind, and at the same time insuring no oxidation by the air. In ironstone sinters the difficulty of oxidation state of the iron did not arise on account of the very large slag bulk. However, in high grade sinters knowledge of this, and also the mechanism whereby high oxidation states can be obtained in the final sinter, is of great interest. R. D. Burlingame (author's reply)—The question has been raised as to whether the high FeO content found in high-fuel sinters is due to actual reduction at the advancing flame front or due to unavoidable direct reduction during the quenching period. For such direct reduction to have taken place in the freshly-formed sinter, a considerable amount of solid carbon would have had to escape combustion and be available throughout the hot sinter zone during the quenching period. A simple stoichiometric calculation with the limited data available indicates that a zone of freshly-formed sinter over 2 in. wide must have averaged roughly 2 pct C to accomplish the amount of reduction found. Furthermore, the presence of this amount of carbon would indicate that the fuel in the charge had not burned over a narrow front but over a zone at least 2 in. thick. In contrast to such a condition, the data of the present investigation indicate that the combustion of fuel is confined mainly to a narrow front in which high temperatures and reducing conditions favor. the formation of excess ferrous iron.

Jan 1, 1959

By Wm. Monay

MR. MONAY (Vice President Kinney Coal Co., Scofield, Utah): The past year and a half has witnessed a series of coal mine disasters in Utah and Wyoming, concentrated into the short space of a few months, following a long period of years in which the industry was comparatively free from devastating calamities. The natural result has been a hysterical activity on the part of bureaus, commissions and professional reformers who know little about coal mining from a practical standpoint. This activity has been met by the industry in Utah with an attitude of submission, no doubt the result of the fear of being misunderstood by the public. But it is my firm conviction that the lives and property of the coal industry will find their surest guaranty of protection in the humanity, and in the self interest of those operating and working in the mines, rather than in governmental regulation. Inelastic, inflexible blanket statutes and rules will simply stifle and hamper the initiative and progress of our industry in working out its own salvation, under the varying and changing conditions of different localities, different conditions, and in different mines. We who have spent our lives in digging in the mines and operating them, know more about this business than anyone else and I believe it is time for us to speak up and no longer sit meekly by while inexperienced bureaus and unskilled commissions make up laws, rules and regulations for us which when made are on the books to stay, even though in a short time they may prove inapplicable, in whole or in part, or be superseded by something different, and which in some cases create new dangers or lull us into a false sense of security. Shortly after the Castle Gate explosion in March, 1924, a new set of safety rules was issued by the Indus- trial Commission of the State of Utah to become effective July 1st of the same year, the most important of which prohibits the use of black powder in any mine--gaseous or non-gaseous; prohibits the use of open flame lamps in any mine-gaseous or non-gaseous; and requires that rock dusting in all main haulage ways as far as the freezing point and required that all mining machines be equipped with water to be applied while cutting. These rules have been characterized as "Utah's Monument to her Dead Miners" in a large poster spread broadcast over the country from an office in New York that styles itself the Association for Labor Legislation. In reviewing the coal mining history of the State of Utah, in the year 1900, a serious disaster occurred at Winter Quarters. The cause of the same is believed to be an explosion of powder that was stored in the mine, which was a common practice in the early days, and from that time until the Castle Gate disaster, March 8, 1924, a period of some twenty-four years, no explosion of any kind occurred in this district. During all this period open lamps were used, considerable black powder was used, rock dusting was unheard of, sprinkling with water was very generally done-all without any catastrophe. Since the adoption of the new rules, we have 'had a very violent explosion at the Carbon Fuel mine in Spring Canyon. At the time of this explosion, 3,000 feet of the main slope had been rock dusted several times between July 1st and September 21st. The second left entry, which is a main haulage way, a distance of 3,000 feet was completely rock dusted on the date of the explosion. This mine is not considered extremely gaseous, yet an explosion as violent as that of the Castle Gate mine occurred. Some thirty men who had been loading coal in various parts of the mine on this Sun- day, the day of the explosion, and other men employed in rock dusting the second left entry, had just left the mine a little while before it occurred, and no abnormal condition in the mine was noted. At the time of the explosion five machine men were in the mine.

Jan 1, 1925

By K. Tangri, B. Swaroop

Simultaneous measurements of lattice (elastic) strain by X-ray line shift method and total strain with an electrical strain gage have been carried out on polycrystalli,ne nickel with the help of a specially designed tensometer attachment for the X-ray dif-fractometer. During the initial stages of deformation, the rate of increase in lattice strain closely follows the total strain until the plastic strain sets in. From then onwards, the two strains deviate from each other and with further increase in afiplied stress the rate of increase of lattice strain eventually decreases. Depending upon the mode of unloading, both compressive and tensile strains have been observed in nickel deformed up to 0.29 pct strain. These results have been explained on the basis of the effects of clustering of dislocations and also the production and behavior of point defects during loading and unloading, respectively. POLYCRYSTALS deformed plastically in a uniaxial tension test show residual lattice strains (hereafter referred to as RLS), which broaden the X-ray line profiles and shift their peak positions.''4 It is known that uniform straining of a crystal lattice (macrostrain) produced movement of ddfraction line peaks, whereas nonuniform straining (microstrain) causes line broadening.= Though the nature and origin of RLS in deformed metals is not yet clearly understood, these are believed to be due to the presence of some form of a locked-up stress system. Several possible detailed interpretations6'" of the stress system have been proposed by various workers and common to all these interpretations is the assumption that different parts of the aggregate have different tensile yield stresses; e.g., that a part A yields under a lower applied stress than a part B. Therefore, during the deformation process, the elastic strain in A will be less than that in B, and, after completion of deformation, B will tend to contract further than A but will be prevented from doing so by the restraining influence of A. Thus, when equilibrium is reached, A will be in compression while B is in tension. Although there is general agreement on the correctness of this argument, controversy still exists as to the exact nature of the parts A and B in a deformed metal. In an alternative approach to the creation of parts A and B, many other investigators have assumed that the RLS observed in unloaded specimens are in some way connected with the lack of proportionality between lattice strain and applied stress in the region above the yield stress." cullity13 has prepared a schematic summary of the results of previous workers, mainly Smith and Wood,2'11 which suggests that, above the elastic limit, the lattice strain may increase less rapidly with respect to strain, or may even decrease with increase in applied stress. If the applied stress is then decreased, the lattice strain would decrease along a line parallel to the loading line in the elastic region and thus produce a compressive residual lattice strain after unloading. At equilibrium, to balance these compressive stresses? there would have to be regions under tensile stress which may well be the grain boundaries or the substructure walls formed during deformation. The present investigation was undertaken to gain a better understanding of the nature and origin of RLS and also to experimentally verify the salient features of this hypothesis. EXPERIMENTAL Stress and strain determinations were made with a specially constructed tensometer attachment for the X-ray diffractometer, Fig. 1: which permits the following measurements simultaneously on a sheet specimen under uniaxial tension at various stress levels during loading and unloading: a) lattice strains, E=. in a direction perpendicular to the direction of pulling (x direction) from shifts in X-ray line peak positions; b) the total strain, ex, in the direction of pulling. with the help of an electrical strain gage affixed to the back of the specimen directly below the area irradiated by X-rays: and c) the applied stress, with the help of a load cell which consisted of a calibrated stainless-steel sample of dimensions identical to those of the specimen under investigation, and to which it was coupled. Because of its high stacking fault energy.I4 nickel

Jan 1, 1970

By Mark E. Smith, Gerald J. Gierszewski

Introduction The purpose of this paper is to present a procedure used by the authors for evaluating and designing soil liner systems. This method is particularly valuable in evaluating various treatment schemes for chemically amended soil liners. A tabulation of laboratory test results on various soil types are presented to quantify the effectiveness of certain treatments. A typical liner design program includes developing and proving soil borrow sources, designing the cross-section of the liner system, developing construction specifications, and providing construction services to ensure the intended product is achieved. Material Source Development The first step in designing a soil liner is to identify and evaluate suitable borrow sources within an economical haulage range. This is best done in a two step approach: a reconnaissance level investigation to identify target areas and a detailed evaluation of those targets. Reconnaissance: The goal of the preliminary investigation is to locate potential borrow sources for liner quality soils. This includes all natural materials which can be compacted, chemically treated, or otherwise amended to yield an installed permeability at or below some target value. This requires utilization of all available data sources: Soil Conservation Service, BLM, aerial photos, USGS geologic maps, and project geologist records. The goal at this stage is to locate shallow deposits of favorable soil types. The Unified Soil Classification System provides an excellent first pass grouping. Clays, clayey sands and silts are the most favorable soil types, although silty sands and occasionally clayey gravels can make excellent liners, and are often amenable to chemical modification. The lowest permeabilities are generally achieved with CH, CL and MH soils. Once preliminary targets have been identified using visual examination, laboratory classification tests should be performed to further refine the selection. Testing at this stage should include gradation, plasticity and hydrometer analyses. Additionally, "preg-rob" testing should be done as early as practical. Preg-rob is a phenomenon where gold or silver ions in solution associate with the clay, or other, minerals. When this occurs, a portion of the gold or silver leached from the ore is actually tied-up by the clay and thus a reduces recovery. Testing for this consists of agitating a small sample of the soil in a solution containing dissolved gold or silver, preferably of similar chemical make-up as the solution which will contact the actual liner. The solution and soil are assayed before and after agitation to determine loss to the clay. A reliable estimate of the hydraulic conductivity, commonly referred to as permeability, can be developed from the D10 value by the use of Hezen's formula: K = 100 (D1012 This relationship is limited to soils where the finer particles do not move due to the force of flowing water (i.e.: "hydrodynamic stabilitym)(1). Additionally, the effect of platty particles on permeability is not as predictable as the effect of equidimensional particles. D10 is the sieve opening size at which 10% of the material is finer. Plasticity is also important from several standpoints. Constructability is directly related to plasticity. Very plastic clays and non-plastic silts both tend to be difficult soils, while medium plastic clays and clayey sands are generally very desirable. Post construction performance is also related to plasticity (e.g. swelling, shrinkage cracking, frost heave, etc.). Additionally, low plasticity silts and silty sands generally do not respond well to chemical amendment. Source Development: The result of the reconnaissance evaluation should be an estimate of the relative probability of developing a suitable borrow source within an economical haul distance. Of course, "economical distance" depends on the degree of handling and treatment the borrow material requires, as well as the cost of synthetic alternatives. The purpose of the detailed investigation is to prove out quantity and quality of material sources, and determine design parameters such as degree of compaction, mixing, treatment and thickness of liner. The emphasis of the testing program should be permeability and strength. Strength becomes increasingly important as the slope of the liner and the height of the heap increase. Permeability testing should evaluate the effects of compaction, water content, mixing and chemical treatment where appropriate. The effects compaction and water content during compaction have on

Jan 1, 1987

By E. J. Dulis, R. M. Fisher, K. G. Carroll

IT is well known that ferritic steels containing more than 15 pct Cr when subjected to temperatures in the range of 700" to 1000°F exhibit increasing hardness and decreasing ductility. The phenomenon has been widely termed the "885 °F embrittlement," after the temperature of most marked effect.'.' In view of the excellent review articles available in the literature3-6 only a brief account of experimentally established facts need be given here. The extent of changes in physical characteristics during embrittlement depends on chromium concentration and time at temperature, higher alloy content and longer time both promoting more rapid and extensive changes. In a 27 pct Cr steel, changes in impact strength and in angle of fracture in bending can be detected after only a 1 hr exposure at 885°F; after 50 hr this steel becomes quite brittle. Hardness increases slowly with time during thousands of hours exposure and may attain a maximum hardness number twice as large as that of the unexposed steel. Microstructural changes accompanying embrittlement have been described as an initial widening of grain boundaries followed by eventual darkening of ferrite grains. Embrittled steels etch more readily, e.g., the weight loss of a 27 pct Cr steel in acid solution may occur at a rate one hundred fold greater following exposure at 885 OF. Marked changes which accompany embrittlement have been observed in electrical resistivity, specific gravity, and magnetic coercive force. Changes in physical properties may be readily removed by heating at temperatures above the embrittling range, such as a treatment at 1100°F for 1 hr. It has frequently been noted that the 885 °F embrittlement suggests precipitation on a submicro-scopic scale of a chromium-rich constituent, the nature of which has not been revealed by X-ray diffraction. Progressive broadening of the body-centered cubic diffraction lines during embrittlement has been observed," and recent observations by Lena and Hawkes' upon single crystals have shown early asterism in X-ray photographs, disappearing within an hour at 900 °F. Many workers have ascribed8-13 the phenomenon to a precipitation of a phase (FeCr), which is known to cause embrittling effects at temperatures much higher than 885°F. Two general observations, however. suggest that a precipitation cannot be responsible for the 885°F phenomenon: 1—prior cold work greatly enhances a formation, whereas it scarcely affects the 885 °F embrittlement, and 2—the presence of an alloying element such as nickel or manganese may have an effect on the 885 °F embrittlement which is opposed to its effect upon a formation. The slight enhancement of a formation and 885°F embrittlement observed in the presence of elements with strong carbide and nitride forming tendencies' is probably a consequence of lessened chromium depletion of the matrix. The bar graph in Fig. 1 shows a typical example, taken from two 27 pct Cr steels used in this work, of the hardness after exposure for 10,000 hr at 900°, 1050°, and 1200°F. Steel A (0.03 pct C, 3.13 pct Mn) showed marked hardening at 900" and 1200°F, whereas steel B (0.12 pct C, 0.63 pct Mn) exhibited only the 900°F hardening. The cr phase was found in steel A at the higher temperatures but not in steel B. Presumably a formation is enhanced by the low-carbon and high-manganese concentrations in A," Thus there are two distinctly different hardening phenomena present which cannot both be ascribed to v precipitation without invoking a transition phase possessing remarkable properties. Materials A number of chromium steels exposed for long periods (5000 to 34,000 hr) at 900°F, as well as unexposed samples of one of the steels, were available for this investigation. Table I gives the chemical compositions and aging treatments of these steels. In addition to these steels exposed in the elevated temperature test furnaces of the National Tube Division, a number of high-chromium steels were heated for short periods in small laboratory air furnaces and lead baths. Supplementing these commercial steels, a sample of high-purity (0.018 pct C, 0.002 pct N) 28 pct Cr iron, exposed 1000 hr at 887°F. was furnished by the Union Carbide and Carbon Corp. In addition, an alloy of iron and chromium of high purity containing 46 pct Cr was used. This

Jan 1, 1954

By P. Bardzil, J. Gurland

An experimental study of the variation of transverse-rupture strength with composition Anexperimentaland grain studysize has shown that the strength reaches a maximum for values of the mean free path between carbide particles of 0.3 to 0.6 microns. The fracture oforiginates in and proceeds through the carbide grains mainly. Impact strength and hardness also were recorded. MOST of the physical properties of sintered carbides vary linearly with composition. The transverse-rupture strength, however, shows a unique behavior. As the amount of binder metal is varied from 6 to 25 pct by weight, the strength at first increases; then, between 15 and 20 pct Co, it reaches a maximum of nearly 400,000 psi, and finally decreases with further additions of binder metal. This behavior of the transverse-rupture strength has been reported, among others, by Englel and Sandford and Trent.' The significance of these observations has not been discussed in the literature. That it may be of more than specific importance is indicated by the very similar variation of strength with composition encountered in other systems sintered in the presence of a liquid phase, such as Tic-Ni3 and Fe-Cu.' Experimental Details All compacts were prepared and sintered according to normal industrial practice. The average diameter of WC grains and the mean free path between grains were measured on metallographically prepared samples by a method of linear and planar analysis sing the relations where d is the average diameter of dispersed grains; Nl is the number of noncontiguous grains intersected on a metallographic plane by a line of unit length; N, is the number of noncontiguous grains per unit area; P is the mean free path between grains of dispersed phase; and f is the volume fraction of dispersed phase. Approximately 1000 grains were counted on each sample. For each composition d2 was plotted against P, the resulting straight lines serving as a check on the measurements. The distribution curves of the WC powders of different average diameters were homologous, and no attempt was made to influence the grain size by blending powders, adjusting the sintering conditions, or otherwise altering the particle size distribution. Densities were measured by differential weighings in air and water. The degree of densification did not vary consistently with either composition or grain size. The density is influenced by slight amounts of impurities, specifically by 0.1 to 0.2 pct Fe which enters the powders during ball milling. As an illus- -tration of the experimental variations, a number of measured densities are listed in Table I. They are expressed in percentage of theoretical density, as calculated from the published X-ray densities of WC and Co.' For the purpose of determining the transverse-rupture strength, rectangular test specimens (3/16x 3/8x3/4 in.) were broken by loading at the center of a 9/16 in. span. The average strength of five or more samples is reported for each composition and grain size. The compacts were ground on two parallel surfaces only. The load was applied at an average rate of 6,800 psi per sec. Since the elongation after fracture of the alloys is very small, it was assumed that the compacts deform elastically to failure and the fracture stress was calculated by the conventional beam formula. The data for one alloy are presented in Table II as an example of the results and scattering ranges encountered. The precision of the test, as measured by the average difference between duplicates, is of the order of 15,000 psi. The results are strictly comparable only to compacts prepared and tested in the manner described and of similar chemical composition and grain size characteristics. Unnotched Charpy specimens were used for impact testing. Each point represents the average of 3 to 20 samples, the larger number being used in an attempt to determine the influence of grain size. Considerable scatter was encountered, the range from lowest to highest value often amounting to 30 pct of the impact strength. The hardness is reported as a Ra reading, using a 60 kg load with diamond brale indenter. Compositions are given in weight percent.

Jan 1, 1956

By M. R. Tek

A new method for correlating the data on multiphase flow through vertical pipe is presented. The correlation is based on a "two-phase f factor" concept which was developed and successfully applied to horizontal multiphase flow by Bertuzzi, Tek and Poettmann. Field data previously published on several flowing and gas-lift wells have been used as the basis for the developed correlation. The application of the method to actual two-phase flow problems indicate that this method is capable of predicting the pressure distribution in vertical multiphase flow strings well within the accuracy range usually desired for common engineering and design calculations. A new working chart developed for calculation of two-phase pressure gradients and a graphical step-by-step procedure for the computation of pressure distribution are presented along with an example problem. INTRODUCTION Multiphase flow through vertical pipe is encountered in many engineering installations. In petroleum, chemical process, nuclear engineering and many other industries, problems associated with simultaneous flow of two or more phases through vertical pipe have been of interest for a long time. This interest has increased considerably during recent years due to applications to new processes in petroleum production and refining and to problems of steam generation and heat removal from nuclear reactors. One prominent example of vertical two-phase flow is provided by the gas-lift process where oil, water and gas flow simultaneously. If the pressure profile in a gas-lift well can be predicted within reasonable accuracy, it would be possible to get good estimates of the power required to lift the oil, the optimum depth, the pressure and the rate at which to inject gas. Furthermore, the effect of production rate and tubing sizes on these quantities can be evaluated before any design decision is made on the installation and operation of the flow string. The majority of experimental work available in the literature deals with two-component systems where individual phase flow rates in and out of the pipe remain constant. The general problem of prediction of pressure drops in multiphase flow systems is very complicated. The co-existence of numerous flow patterns of widely different geometry and mechanism, conditions of surface instability and the nature of force fields acting upon the system are among the major difficulties commonly encountered. The classical approach of fluid dynamics which would be based upon the formulation and solution of Navier-Stokes equations has been found by many investigators completely devoid of any hope of success-—not only because of inherent nonlinearities but also because of insurmountable analytical difficulties standirng in the way of setting up the boundary conditions. The presence and effect of interfacial forces on mu1tiphase flow systems further complicate the theoretical approach. For these reasons, many investigators choose to adopt semi-empirical if not purely empirical approaches in order to obtain solutions of engineering utility. A prominent practical solution has been given by Poettmann and Carpenter' in the form of an empirical correlation. In their paper, total flowing densities of fluids and solubility effects of gas in oil have been taken into account for the correlation of field data covering a wide range of operating conditions for oil wells. They treated the gas. oil and water as a single phase of combined propcrties and correlated the multiphase friction factor as a function of the product (pvd), i.e., density X velocity X diameter of the flow string. However, because the product (pvd) is dimensional while the frictior factor is dimensionless, the generality of their result's is somewhat restricted. It seems that the omission 01 viscosity effect may be one of the reasons for the scatter of data as shown in their correlation chart. The concepts of the "two-phase f factor" and the "two-phase Reynolds' number function" were recently developed and successfully applied to correlate horizontal multphase flow by Bertuzzi, Tek and Poettmann.' Recently, two new methods of correlation by Tek and Chan' have been presented on simultaneous flow of liquid and gas through vertical pipe. These two methods of correlation and the working equations in field units necessary for their application are included in this paper. The extension of the conccpt of two-phasc Reynolds' number function successfully developed for horizontal flow into vertical multiphase flow systems, development and evaluation of working charts permitting calculation of two-phase pressure gradients and

By Brahm Prakash, R. Schuhmann

Chemical conditions for flotation and nonflotation of quartz with oleic acid as collector and barium, calcium, aluminum, iron, and tin as activators were studied using a simple vacuum-flotation technique in glass-stoppered graduates. The detailed study of barium activation led to an interpretation based on ideal Langmuirian chemi-sorption. FLOTATION of quartz is of practical importance as something to be avoided in soap-floating many types of ores. Clean, unactivated quartz is not floated with fatty acids and soaps, such as oleic acid and sodium oleate, in the quantities normally used for flotation. However, data in the literature indicate that almost any multivalent cation will activate quartz if given an opportunity. Thus, a common problem is to prevent activation of quartz by the various inorganic cations inevitably present in flotation pulps. Wark and his coworkers1 have demonstrated the reversibility of the chemical reactions and adsorptions involved in the activation, depression, and collection of the common sulphide minerals. The procedure in much of their work was to bring a mineral surface to equilibrium with solutions of known pH, collector concentration, and activator concentration, and then to test the floatability of the mineral by contact-angle measurement. From the data, graphs were constructed with pH and reagent concentrations as coordinates. These graphs show fields of flotation and fields of nonflotation, separated by narrow transition regions whose locations are shown by so-called contact curves. From the shapes and locations of the contact curves, which roughly separate fields of flotation from fields of nonflotation, a quantitative understanding of the interaction of the reagents with each other and with the minerals often can be deduced. The study of quartz flotation to be described in this paper follows in broad lines the approach of Wark and coworkers. That is, pH, activator concentration, and collector concentration were varied to find equilibrium conditions of flotation and non- flotation, and the results are presented graphically by means of contact curves. However, instead of testing for floatability by measuring the contact angle on a polished surface, a simple vacuum flotation technique was developed and used. Purified oleic acid was the collector and terpineol the frother. Barium activation was studied in some detail, and exploratory studies were made of activation with calcium, aluminum, ferric iron, and stannic tin. Preparation of Materials Quartz: Large lumps of high-grade vein quartz were crushed dry in a cone crusher and rolls. The —20, +28-mesh portion was screened out and used in the subsequent steps. This material was passed through a high-intensity magnetic separator to discard iron, then leached twice with hot concentrated HCl and washed repeatedly with distilled water. The cleaned sand was then wet ground with porcelain balls in a porcelain pebble mill, deslimed repeatedly by settling and decantation to discard —800-mesh material, and again washed with hot HCl followed by distilled water. The resulting stock of quartz was stored under water. Chemical analysis gave 99.8 pct SiO2. Table I gives the size analysis of the quartz used for flotation tests. Calculations from these data, using shape factors given by Gaudin and Hukki9 indicate a specific surface of about 500 cm2 per g. Blank flotation tests in distilled water, and in water with added frother, showed the prepared quartz to be completely nonfloatable and thus indicated the absence of organic contamination. Oleic Acid: The preparation of oleic acid was based on fractional vacuum distillation of methyl oleate2,3 followed by regeneration of oleic acid, and finally fractional crystallization of oleic acid from acetone solutions at low temperatures." The pure oleic acid was stored in a refrigerator. The iodine number of the oleic acid was found to be 90.0 (theoretical 89.93). Oleic acid was used in the form of a dilute water solution of sodium oleate, after preliminary flotation tests showed no effects of form of addition and order of addition of reagents when an adequate conditioning time (that is, 30 min) was provided. Other Reagents: Sodium hydroxide solutions low in carbonate were prepared by first making 1:1

Jan 1, 1951

By Brahm Prakash, R. Schuhmann

Chemical conditions for flotation and nonflotation of quartz with oleic acid as collector and barium, calcium, aluminum, iron, and tin as activators were studied using a simple vacuum-flotation technique in glass-stoppered graduates. The detailed study of barium activation led to an interpretation based on ideal Langmuirian chemi-sorption. FLOTATION of quartz is of practical importance as something to be avoided in soap-floating many types of ores. Clean, unactivated quartz is not floated with fatty acids and soaps, such as oleic acid and sodium oleate, in the quantities normally used for flotation. However, data in the literature indicate that almost any multivalent cation will activate quartz if given an opportunity. Thus, a common problem is to prevent activation of quartz by the various inorganic cations inevitably present in flotation pulps. Wark and his coworkers1 have demonstrated the reversibility of the chemical reactions and adsorptions involved in the activation, depression, and collection of the common sulphide minerals. The procedure in much of their work was to bring a mineral surface to equilibrium with solutions of known pH, collector concentration, and activator concentration, and then to test the floatability of the mineral by contact-angle measurement. From the data, graphs were constructed with pH and reagent concentrations as coordinates. These graphs show fields of flotation and fields of nonflotation, separated by narrow transition regions whose locations are shown by so-called contact curves. From the shapes and locations of the contact curves, which roughly separate fields of flotation from fields of nonflotation, a quantitative understanding of the interaction of the reagents with each other and with the minerals often can be deduced. The study of quartz flotation to be described in this paper follows in broad lines the approach of Wark and coworkers. That is, pH, activator concentration, and collector concentration were varied to find equilibrium conditions of flotation and non- flotation, and the results are presented graphically by means of contact curves. However, instead of testing for floatability by measuring the contact angle on a polished surface, a simple vacuum flotation technique was developed and used. Purified oleic acid was the collector and terpineol the frother. Barium activation was studied in some detail, and exploratory studies were made of activation with calcium, aluminum, ferric iron, and stannic tin. Preparation of Materials Quartz: Large lumps of high-grade vein quartz were crushed dry in a cone crusher and rolls. The —20, +28-mesh portion was screened out and used in the subsequent steps. This material was passed through a high-intensity magnetic separator to discard iron, then leached twice with hot concentrated HCl and washed repeatedly with distilled water. The cleaned sand was then wet ground with porcelain balls in a porcelain pebble mill, deslimed repeatedly by settling and decantation to discard —800-mesh material, and again washed with hot HCl followed by distilled water. The resulting stock of quartz was stored under water. Chemical analysis gave 99.8 pct SiO2. Table I gives the size analysis of the quartz used for flotation tests. Calculations from these data, using shape factors given by Gaudin and Hukki9 indicate a specific surface of about 500 cm2 per g. Blank flotation tests in distilled water, and in water with added frother, showed the prepared quartz to be completely nonfloatable and thus indicated the absence of organic contamination. Oleic Acid: The preparation of oleic acid was based on fractional vacuum distillation of methyl oleate2,3 followed by regeneration of oleic acid, and finally fractional crystallization of oleic acid from acetone solutions at low temperatures." The pure oleic acid was stored in a refrigerator. The iodine number of the oleic acid was found to be 90.0 (theoretical 89.93). Oleic acid was used in the form of a dilute water solution of sodium oleate, after preliminary flotation tests showed no effects of form of addition and order of addition of reagents when an adequate conditioning time (that is, 30 min) was provided. Other Reagents: Sodium hydroxide solutions low in carbonate were prepared by first making 1:1

Jan 1, 1951

By R. E. Jenkins

The Bell Canyon member of the Delaware Mountain group has yielded quite a large number of fields in which completion and production problems have been numerous and complex. Reserves are difficult to estimate due to the problem of evaluating the formation water saturation, and the feasibility of water flooding is questionable. Extensive laboratory investigations were undertaken to determine if normally measured rock and contained fluids properties could account for many of the peculiar characteristics of the formation. A statistical study or routine core-analysis data was made. Capillary-pressure data were obtained by several techniques. Fresh-water and brine permeabilities were measured and relative permeabilities of oil, water and gas were determined. Some qualitative wetta-bility tests were performed, and the petrography of a few thin sections was studied. The results of this work are presented, with typical or average data shown for each test. The permeability -to- water characteristic of the Delaware was found to be abnormally poor. Correlations of laboratory and field performance data indicate high water saturations in much of the formation. Pore geometry is highly uniform. INTRODUCTION The Delaware formation has undergone extensive exploration and development in the past few years. This has resulted in the discovery of quite a number of fields—producing oil for the most part. A large percentage of the productive wells have produced water along with the oil. Often there is no apparent pattern for the percentage of water cut experienced. In several instances vertical displacments of over 200 ft have been established between communicating wells in which the formation appears to be about the same, yet the structurally high wells yield a much higher water cut than the lower wells. Drill-stem tests have contributed little to well completion because they nearly always show small amounts of water (usually mud filtrate), regardless of what is produced later in the life of the well. Other formation evaluation methods have had no more than limited success in indicating ultimate productivity. Consequently, predicting the type of fluid productivity of Delaware wells has been very difficult. Hydraulic fracture treatments are almost universal, and unstimulated Delaware wells have not exhibited the productivity that normally would be expected of wells with the specific permeabilities encountered. Some operators have indicated that their Delaware wells need frequent re-stimulation. The uncertainty of reservoir water saturations reported for the Delaware has made difficult the task of evaluating oil in place in the reservoirs and estimating primary recovery. The unreliability of this data also will cause feasibility studies for water flooding or other secondary-recovery methods to be problematical. Several opinions have been voiced to explain why the Delaware performs as it does. Chronically poor well completions, dynamic water and tilted water tables, capillary inequi-libria, peculiar relative permeability characteristics and oil-wetness are among the suggested reasons. The dual purpose of this paper is (1) to describe the principal rock characteristics, and (2) to present an evaluation of those characteristics so that approaches can be made to explain the irrational behavior of wells completed in the Delaware. STUDY OF ROUTINE CORE-ANALYSIS DATA A statistical study of routine core-analysis data has been made to relate fundamental rock properties and characteristics of the formation to well productivity. For the most part, well production data were obtained from operators and augmented by production data from commercial information services. Only data which were available in detail and which were considered to be accurate were used. The core data used were obtained on samples from the perforated or open interval only and, thus, may not always represent the total productive interval in a well. All the core-analysis data included in this study are from the Bell Canyon member of the Delaware and were obtained by "plug-type" techniques, as opposed to whole-core or full-diameter techniques. Porosity values were obtained by the summation-of-fluids technique, permeability values are air permeabilities corrected for slippage to an equivalent liquid permeability, and the oil and water contents were determined by means of a high-temperature downdraft retort. All the procedures used are discussed at length in Ref. I. The core-analysis data were sorted

By R. L. Bleifuss

The object of this study was to evaluate the oxidized taconites of the western Mesabi iron range and to establish a correlation between the various basic taconite types and their concentratability. The initial work included a study of the original mineralogical and stratigraphic facies of the fresh taconite and traced the oxidation and leaching patterns developed during the conversion of this material to oxidized taconite. Subsequent studies have extended this work to include the semitaconites and also the wash and heavy media ore types widely developed in the area. Each basic original mineralogical facies or taconite type produces during alteration an equivalent secondary oxidized facies which has a unique mineralogical composition and texture. These control the concentratability of the oxidized taconites. Actually the influence of the original mineralogical composition of the iron formation extends even further and determines whether the most likely product of oxidation and leaching will be a wash ore or a heavy media ore and even to the direct shipping ores where the ratio of hematite to goethite is largely determined by the original taconite type. The relationship between original taconite, oxidized taconite, semitaconites, and wash and heavy media ores is briefly summarized in Table I. The terms are not precise and in some instances tend to overlap. The table is intended to point out only the essential differences between the various materials. The original taconite was dominantly composed of mixtures of magnetite, iron carbonate, iron silicate, and quartz (chert). In a few thin stratigraphic units, hematite was present as an original constituent. The alteration of the original taconite to oxidized taconite has resulted from the circulation of ground waters through an initial fracture system related to minor structures in the iron formation. The chemical reactions have involved the oxidation and decomposition of original minerals such as magnetite, iron carbonate, and iron silicates to hematite or goethite. The alteration at this early stage is characterized by pseudomorphic replacement of the original minerals by oxidation products although retaining the major textural features of the original taconite. There was very little secondary migration of iron at this stage and the total iron content of the rock has been only slightly increased. Further alteration of this material to form a semi-taconite, a wash or a heavy media ore, involves extensive removal of silica in solution and significant redistribution of iron units. Wash and heavy media ores are developed by the growth of coarse secondary iron layers, dominantly goethite, coupled with the removal of silica in solution and decomposition of the cherty layers. This paper is concerned primarily with the materials classified as oxidized taconites which are characterized by oxidation of the original mineral constituents with little secondary enrichment. The area studied, shown on the index map, Fig. 1, extends some 30 miles along the strike of the Biwabik formation roughly from Hibbing to Coleraine. This study was greatly facilitated by the basic stratigraphic and mineralogical studies of Gruner1 and white2. The bulk of the material in this presentation represents a portion of the author's contribution to a study sponsored by the Great Northern Railway on the oxidized taconites of the western Mesabi.3 METHOD OF APPROACH A total of 106 drill holes, representing some 30,000 ft of drilling, were examined and sampled. The drill holes were logged and some 1500 composite samples were prepared for chemical analysis and bench scale metallurgical tests. These samples were analyzed for total iron and ferrous iron; and magnetite iron was determined by a standard Davis tube test at minus 200 mesh. Standard reduction roast tests using 150-gram samples of minus 10 mesh material were made on these 1500 composite samples with a mixture of H2, CO2, N2, and H2O at a temperature of 650°C. This roasted material was pulverized through 150 mesh and concentrated in the Davis tube. The iron recoveries and concentrate grades obtained on the roasted products were used to assess the concentratability of the oxidized taconites. Detailed mineralogical work was done on thin sec-

Jan 1, 1964

By V. B. Achanti, A. W. Khair

Introduction Laboratory studies were carried out at West Virginia University to investigate the rock-fragmentation mechanism of continuous miners using an automated rotary cutting simulator. The primary factors influencing the fragmentation process were found to be bit spacing, bit geometry, depth of cut and cutting-drum rotational speed. This paper presents a discussion of the effects of these parameters in achieving optimum energy consumption and minimizing dust generation during rock fragmentation. The removal of rock ridges/walls between adjacent grooves is analyzed with three hits mounted simultaneously on the cutting head, while the bit tip angle was varied from 600 to 900. Bit spacing was varied from 25.4 to 50.8 mm (1 to 2 in.) while the cutting process was assessed for varying cutting depths. Respirable dusts generated during the course of the experiments were analyzed utilizing cascade impactors. Assessment of these parameters has led to a better understanding of the cutting mechanism of continuous miners in terms of energy consumption and dust generation. A review of the literature revealed that a considerable amount of research has been carried out on rockcutting processes. Many authors agree that the mechanical cutting efficiencies of mining machines (e.g., continuous miners, shearers and road headers) are affected by a host of parameters. Some of these parameters are machine controlled, some are operator controlled, while others are uncontrollable. Efforts were focused on understanding the influence of parameters such as bit spacing, cutting depth, attack angle, bit type, drum speed, bit geometry (i.e., tip size, shape and tip angle) and rock type on the cutting process efficiency in terms of specific energy consumption and respirable dust generation (Strehig?? et al., 1975, Hanson et al., 1979, Khair et al., 1989). Roepke et al. (1976) in an attempt to study the dust and energy generated during coal cutting using point attack bits found that the dust and the specific energy consumed both decrease as the depth of cut increases. The four fundamental stages of dust generation luring rock fragmentation are identified by Zipf and Bieniawski (1989). Coal breakage by various types of wedges was assessed by Evans and Pomeroy (1966) in an extensive experimental study on British coals. Yet the industry today requires further attention and guidance to optimize the energy consumption and dust generation during the rockbreakage process. This paper attempts to give a better understanding of the influence of some of the parameters listed above and focuses on further improvement in the rock-cutting process. The specific energy consumed for different types of bits used and the respirable dust generated are analyzed in the context of the variation of a few other parameters. Laboratory investigation The experiments were performed in the Rock Mechanics Laboratories located at West Virginia University. A rock-cutting simulator designed and fabricated by Khair (1984) was utilized for this purpose. The details of this machine are available in the literature (see Khair 1984). For this study, a series of preliminary experiments was carried out to determine the optimum cutting frame advance speed. This was intended to facilitate a maximum cut depth of 31.75 mm (1.25 in.) at an advance rate of 0.525 mm/s (0.0207 ips) for all types of bits being used and various bit spacings being considered. To look into the cutting-process efficiency of a continuous miner in the laboratory, several parameters of influence are being considered. Besides the bit-geometry parameters, machine- and operator-controlled parameters, such as spacing of bits on the cutting head, the cutting head rotational speed and the total cutting depth during an experiment, are varied. At the time this paper was written, only part of the completed experiments were ana¬lyzed, and a number of experiments were still being carried out following an orthogonal fractional factorial experimental plan to assess the effect of all of the above¬mentioned parameters on the cutting efficiency in terms of energy consumption and dust generation. Three different types of tip angles, namely, 60°, 75° and 90°, and two different tip sizes, namely, diameters of 7.94 and 24.61 mm (0.313 and 0.969 in.), were used. At

Jan 1, 1999

By J. S. Aronofsky

The first step in a quantitative analysis ot the mechanism of oil displacement by water in a fractured reservoir is usually conceded to be the solution of the differential equation describing the saturation distribution of two immiscible fluids flowing in a porous medium, where the capillary pressure is taken into account. In such a system the production mechanism may consist of displacement of oil both by the flow of water due to natural or artificially imposed pressure gradients and by imbibition, which implies a flow of water not due to external pressure gradients. Owing to the presence of the two oil displacement mechanisms, the mathematical model given by the differential equation intended to describe the system may not properly represent the behavior of the physical system. In fact, in the reservoir the rate of water advance may be very slow, and in the case of a fractured reservoir with a great number of large fractures, the pressure difference determining the flow of water through the matrix may be much less than 1 lb/'psi over lengths of a few feet. In such a case, imbi-bition (the exchange between oil in the matrix and water in the fractures resulting from capillary forces) may become, with time. a significant element of the production mechanism. It occurred Lo the authors, however, that without going into a physical analysis of the process of production, it might be possible by means of simple abstract reasoning to throw some light on the variation of recovery with time under conditions occurring in a highly fractured oil reservoir with rising water table. The object of this paper is to present both the reasoning and its application to a reservoir of the highly fractured type. Specifically, the analysis given here was undertaken to try to explain the increase of recovery (as defined later) with time as observed in this reservoir, without having to assume unlikely variations in the reservoir parameters with depth. This attempt has been successful as will become clear upon comparison of the computed recoveries with the actual field data. ABSTRACT MODEL Let us consider a small volume. of porous matrix saturated with oil at time, t = 0. Let the process of oil displacement by water start at time, t = t,,. At some time, t, the process will have terminated. Then a volume of oil equal to or smaller than the original oil contained in the matrix will have been produced. The first basic assumption that describes the model and guides the forthcoming reasoning is that the oil production from the small volume. dv, is a continuous monotonic function of time and that it converges to a finite limit. Such an assumption is not inconsistent with the results of laboratory waterflood tests as well as with results of imbibition tests where this is, in fact, observed. The second basic assumption is that none of the properties which determine the rate of convergence change sufficiently during the process to affect this rate or the limit. Let it be assumed that the form of the function of time relative to production from the matrix volume. dv, is given by where V,(t) is the volume of oil produced up to that time t. R is the limit toward which the recovery converges, A is a constant giving the rate of convergence, and V,(t) is the volume of oil originally in place in the volume, dv. It should be noted that recovery at time I will be understood here to he It follows that r. tends to R as t tends to infinity. CONSTRUCTION OF RESERVOIR FROM ABSTRACT MODEL Let the reservoir consist of a series of identical blocks of porous matrix stacked vertically and separated by fractures. Let each of these blocks satisfy the conditions of our abstract model. These conditions are: (1) that recovery is a continuous mono-tonic function of time converging to finite limit, and (2) none of the properties that determine the rate of convergence change sufficiently to affect the rate or the limit. Let water be rising in fractures so that oil production from any part of the block starts when the water comes in conLact with it. TOTAL RECOVERY FROM THE RESERVOIR COMPARED TO RECOVERY FROM A SINGLE MODEL ELEMENT As stipulated in Eq. 1, in the case of the abstract model,

By P. Majani, F. P. Kokesh, M. Grosmangin

Determination of the quality of cementation of casing in oil wells in the past has involved inflow and circulation tests to insure that the producing zones were adequately sealed off from the adjacent zones. Existing logging methods, such as temperature and radioactivity surveys, may detect the presence of cement behind the casing. However, the qualities of the cement (i.e., its hardness and particularly its bond to the casing) are not indicated. The new logging method described in this paper operates on the principle that the attenuation of a sonic pulse transmitted by a casing is greatly increased when that casing is bonded to an outer annulus of hard material (such as set cement) which has an appreciably smaller sonic-wave velocity than that of the casing. The down-hole tool contains a source of recurrent sound pulses which are detected by a receiver spaced a few feet from the source The amplitude of the detected casing-borne pulse is measured, and the resulting signal is transmitted to the surface where it is recorded vs depth. Since amplitude is a function of attenuation, the log is readily interpreted. Laboratory studies have shown straightforward relationship between attenuation and such variables as source-detector spacing and per cent of circumference bonded. It is shown that cement not set or not bonded to the casing has compara- tively little attenuating effect. Field examples show not only the cement top, but also the variation in cementation quality below the top. Further, the increase of bonding with time and after squeeze cementation is depicted. The detection of poor cement jobs is confirmed by production tests and by formation-test results. It is anticipated that the method will have wide application in evaluating cementation quality prior to formation testing in completions and recompletions. The analysis it affords may aid in further improving cementation techniques. INTRODUCTION The main purpose of oilwell cementing is to isolate a production zone from other undesirable zones. To investigate whether this purpose has been accomplished, several logging methods have been used such as temperature logs, radioactive tracer logs, etc. While these logs all respond to the presence of cement behind the casing, they do not indicate the degree of bonding of the cement to the casing. Early in the application of sonic logging, it was noticed that considerable attenuation of sound signals takes place in cemented pipe and is often made evident on the standard Sonic log by cycle skipping.' The development of a circuit capable of continuously recording the amplitude of the casing-borne sound signal has made possible an extensive series of laboratory and field tests, which gave the following results. The amplitude of a sound signal after it has traveled in a firmly cemented pipe is only a small fraction of that recorded by the same device in free pipe. This provides a wide spectrum of energy levels; for given local conditions, empirical values of the amplitude can be correlated with the quality of cementation. Interpretations made in this manner generally have been confirmed by production tests, circulation tests and squeeze cementation. The purposes of this paper are to give a general description of the new logging method and to present some laboratory and field results. CYCLE SKIPPING Early attempts to study the quality of the cement behind the casing were performed with a standard Sonic log, which measures the transit time At, and were based on the well known phenomenon of cycle skipping.' Cycle skipping normally is interpreted as being a manifestation of weak signals at the receivers. The log of Fig. 1 was run with the recording instrumentation adjusted to enhance cycle skipping. A mirror-image presentation was used for better visual interpretation. The transit time of sound in steel is about 58 microseconds/ft (corresponding to a velocity of 17,000 ft/ sec), and the portions of the log where this value is recorded are interpreted as zones with no cement bond. Where cycle skipping produces a higher value of At, weak signals (or a high rate of attenuation) are indicated, and a good cement bond may be present. The occurrence of cycle skipping, however, depends too much on instrument adjustment to give a uni-

By Paul M. Tyler

YEAR after year, the kaolin industry of the United States has been setting new production records and making better products. High-grade paper, pottery, and rubber clays are produced in this country mostly in the South. Georgia alone contributes over 70 pct and South Carolina almost 20 pct of the total domestic output. Residual kaolin is mined in North Carolina, highly plastic but naturally sandy Tertiary (Eocene) potting clays are worked in north central Florida, and good white clays are produced in several other states, but the main sources of kaolin or china clay have been numerous deposits in the Tuscaloosa (Upper Cretaceous) formation. This formation of generally sandy sediments is called the Middendorf member in older geologic reports and corresponds in age with some of the New Jersey clays. As shown in fig. 1, it crops out almost continuously in a generally southwesterly direction across South Carolina and Georgia and into Alabama. Clay is mined from this formation in all three states but the principal producing centers lie within about 10 miles of a straight line drawn between Aiken, S. C., and a point about 10 miles south of Macon, Ga. The white kaolins of the South were recognized and used prior to the Civil War but suitable treatment processes were not introduced until World War I when imports, chiefly from England, were curtailed. Although imports of high-grade clays were resumed after 1918, the domestic industry managed to treble its prewar production record during the early 1920's and has continued to grow. Whereas the 1909 to 1913 average total production in the United States was only 132,104 short tons valued at $705,352 f.O.b. mines, the output in 1948 was 1,-568,848 tons worth $19,756,738. Paradoxically, it seems in retrospect that the early failure of the American industry to meet foreign competition was due to the superior quality of our sedimentary clays in their natural state. Kaolin, of course, is the principal decomposition product of feldspars which originate in acidic igneous rocks such as granite, aplite, alaskite, granodiorite, quartz porphyry, etc. English china clays occur in residual deposits and before they can be marketed they have to be treated to remove accompanying quartz, mica, and other impurities. Notwithstanding the relatively crude methods employed, the final product is a beneficiated clay which is subject to a certain amount of technical control as to quality and uniformity. Although the naturally concentrated deposits in Georgia and South Carolina contain some of the finest crude white kaolin in the world, even it can be made better by suitable treatment. In recent years well over half of the high-grade china clay produced in the United States has been used in making paper. Some qualities of paper clays are still produced by the dry process, or air flotation, but the paper industry's specifications have grown so exacting that wet processing was adopted and more refined methods had to be perfected. Notwithstanding notable advances in clay-preparation technology during the past decade, or possibly because these advances have implemented and encouraged technologic changes in consuming industries, demand has grown for products of higher uniform quality than can be obtained from even the best natural deposits without rigidly controlled fractionation. Largely as a result of the wide adoption of machine coating for paper, the clay industry has been obliged not merely to eliminate virtually all mineral impurities but also to segregate the clay substance itself into narrow particle-size ranges. By extraordinary coordination of sales effort and production technology, several Georgia companies manage to market a wide variety of specialized joint products but the commercial success of many producers depends upon their mining only the best parts of their deposits and then skimming the cream of this almost pure clay in order to obtain a maximum yield of kaolinite finer than about 2 microns in maximum particle size and possessing low viscosity as well as the more familiar attributes of suitable color and brightness, or reflectance. To the casual visitor from another mineral industry, the kaolin mines and plants may appear to be

Jan 1, 1951

By C. O. Dale, W. J. Rundle

THE upper Mississippi Valley zinc-lead area was the first major lead-producing section in the United States. The lead ore, found near the surface in crevices, was relatively pure galena that could be smelted directly into lead, at first in log hearth furnaces and later in more efficient blast type furnaces. French Canadian fur traders encouraged the Indians to mine the lead ore and showed them how to smelt it into lead that had a high value for bullets1 Nicholas Perrot found lead ore on the Mississippi River bluffs near the junction of Wisconsin and Illinois and in 1690 established a trading post on the Wisconsin side of the river opposite the present site of Dubuque, Iowa.2 Shortly after 1720 discovery of Mine La Mott in Missouri diverted considerable attention from the Upper Mississippi area. Mining continued on a desultory basis with operations concentrated in the Galena, Illinois-Dubuque, area. In 1740 at least 20 miners were at work in the Fever River area around Galena and are reported to have shipped 2500 70-lb pigs of lead to Kaskaskia in 1741." Julien Dubuque established a mining and smelting operation in 1790 near the city that bears his name and was granted sole right to exploit the mining operations on the lands of the Sauk and the Fox Indians. He is reported to have produced 30,000 70-lb pigs of lead in 1805. Following the death of Dubuque in 1810 the Indians refused to let the white miners enter their lands, and little was done on the Iowa side of the river until the Indians were removed by treaty with the United States government in 1832." Early mining was entirely for lead but as the crevices were followed down, increasing percentages of zinc sulphide and zinc carbonate were encountered and at first discarded. Later a market became available for the zinc ores, and hand jigging devices were made to separate the lead, the zinc, and the rock or waste materials. The first record of zinc production from the area is for 1860. Production of zinc passed that of lead before 1900, reached a peak of 64,000 short tons in 1917, fell off rapidly and continually to about 2000 short tons in 1938, and since 1940 has ranged from 11,000 to 19,000 short tons. Lead has been of considerably less importance since 1900, and at present only about 10 pct as much lead as zinc is produced. Practically all of the zinc ore has come from orebodies that are rather flat and wide with considerable length as compared to width. Most of the early lead came from the crevice type deposit, but present production is from the predominately flat zinc orebodies. The Graham-Snyder orebody, scene of Eagle Picher operations, is practically all zinc with little or no lead being recovered. Marcasite, present in varying amounts, makes production of finished concentrates by gravity separation impractical. Satisfactory lead and zinc concentrates have been produced since flotation was introduced in the area in 1927. An acid recovery plant was operated for about 20 years after World War I, but it has been dismantled, and no recovery of the iron sulphides in the ores of the district is being made at the present time. In June 1950 there were three companies operating mines and mills, Tri-State Zinc Co., Calumet & Hecla Consolidated Copper Co., and Eagle Picher Mining and Smelting Co. The Vinegar Hill Zinc Co. had completed a shaft at a new orebody and had started to develop the mine which will supply the Cuba City mill. The Cuba Mining Co. was holding the Andrews Mine inactive. The Dodgeville Mining Co. was not operating but was exploring for additional reserves. Several small mines were selling ore to the Eagle Picher mill. A general area map is given in Fig. 1. The Eagle Picher Mining and Smelting Co. entered the area in 1946 with an active exploration campaign. Leases on a block basis were secured for the area south from the Wisconsin-Illinois line near

Jan 1, 1953

By C. O. Dale, W. J. Rundle

THE upper Mississippi Valley zinc-lead area was the first major lead-producing section in the United States. The lead ore, found near the surface in crevices, was relatively pure galena that could be smelted directly into lead, at first in log hearth furnaces and later in more efficient blast type furnaces. French Canadian fur traders encouraged the Indians to mine the lead ore and showed them how to smelt it into lead that had a high value for bullets1 Nicholas Perrot found lead ore on the Mississippi River bluffs near the junction of Wisconsin and Illinois and in 1690 established a trading post on the Wisconsin side of the river opposite the present site of Dubuque, Iowa.2 Shortly after 1720 discovery of Mine La Mott in Missouri diverted considerable attention from the Upper Mississippi area. Mining continued on a desultory basis with operations concentrated in the Galena, Illinois-Dubuque, area. In 1740 at least 20 miners were at work in the Fever River area around Galena and are reported to have shipped 2500 70-lb pigs of lead to Kaskaskia in 1741." Julien Dubuque established a mining and smelting operation in 1790 near the city that bears his name and was granted sole right to exploit the mining operations on the lands of the Sauk and the Fox Indians. He is reported to have produced 30,000 70-lb pigs of lead in 1805. Following the death of Dubuque in 1810 the Indians refused to let the white miners enter their lands, and little was done on the Iowa side of the river until the Indians were removed by treaty with the United States government in 1832." Early mining was entirely for lead but as the crevices were followed down, increasing percentages of zinc sulphide and zinc carbonate were encountered and at first discarded. Later a market became available for the zinc ores, and hand jigging devices were made to separate the lead, the zinc, and the rock or waste materials. The first record of zinc production from the area is for 1860. Production of zinc passed that of lead before 1900, reached a peak of 64,000 short tons in 1917, fell off rapidly and continually to about 2000 short tons in 1938, and since 1940 has ranged from 11,000 to 19,000 short tons. Lead has been of considerably less importance since 1900, and at present only about 10 pct as much lead as zinc is produced. Practically all of the zinc ore has come from orebodies that are rather flat and wide with considerable length as compared to width. Most of the early lead came from the crevice type deposit, but present production is from the predominately flat zinc orebodies. The Graham-Snyder orebody, scene of Eagle Picher operations, is practically all zinc with little or no lead being recovered. Marcasite, present in varying amounts, makes production of finished concentrates by gravity separation impractical. Satisfactory lead and zinc concentrates have been produced since flotation was introduced in the area in 1927. An acid recovery plant was operated for about 20 years after World War I, but it has been dismantled, and no recovery of the iron sulphides in the ores of the district is being made at the present time. In June 1950 there were three companies operating mines and mills, Tri-State Zinc Co., Calumet & Hecla Consolidated Copper Co., and Eagle Picher Mining and Smelting Co. The Vinegar Hill Zinc Co. had completed a shaft at a new orebody and had started to develop the mine which will supply the Cuba City mill. The Cuba Mining Co. was holding the Andrews Mine inactive. The Dodgeville Mining Co. was not operating but was exploring for additional reserves. Several small mines were selling ore to the Eagle Picher mill. A general area map is given in Fig. 1. The Eagle Picher Mining and Smelting Co. entered the area in 1946 with an active exploration campaign. Leases on a block basis were secured for the area south from the Wisconsin-Illinois line near

Jan 1, 1953

By Paul M. Tyler

YEAR after year, the kaolin industry of the United States has been setting new production records and making better products. High-grade paper, pottery, and rubber clays are produced in this country mostly in the South. Georgia alone contributes over 70 pct and South Carolina almost 20 pct of the total domestic output. Residual kaolin is mined in North Carolina, highly plastic but naturally sandy Tertiary (Eocene) potting clays are worked in north central Florida, and good white clays are produced in several other states, but the main sources of kaolin or china clay have been numerous deposits in the Tuscaloosa (Upper Cretaceous) formation. This formation of generally sandy sediments is called the Middendorf member in older geologic reports and corresponds in age with some of the New Jersey clays. As shown in fig. 1, it crops out almost continuously in a generally southwesterly direction across South Carolina and Georgia and into Alabama. Clay is mined from this formation in all three states but the principal producing centers lie within about 10 miles of a straight line drawn between Aiken, S. C., and a point about 10 miles south of Macon, Ga. The white kaolins of the South were recognized and used prior to the Civil War but suitable treatment processes were not introduced until World War I when imports, chiefly from England, were curtailed. Although imports of high-grade clays were resumed after 1918, the domestic industry managed to treble its prewar production record during the early 1920's and has continued to grow. Whereas the 1909 to 1913 average total production in the United States was only 132,104 short tons valued at $705,352 f.O.b. mines, the output in 1948 was 1,-568,848 tons worth $19,756,738. Paradoxically, it seems in retrospect that the early failure of the American industry to meet foreign competition was due to the superior quality of our sedimentary clays in their natural state. Kaolin, of course, is the principal decomposition product of feldspars which originate in acidic igneous rocks such as granite, aplite, alaskite, granodiorite, quartz porphyry, etc. English china clays occur in residual deposits and before they can be marketed they have to be treated to remove accompanying quartz, mica, and other impurities. Notwithstanding the relatively crude methods employed, the final product is a beneficiated clay which is subject to a certain amount of technical control as to quality and uniformity. Although the naturally concentrated deposits in Georgia and South Carolina contain some of the finest crude white kaolin in the world, even it can be made better by suitable treatment. In recent years well over half of the high-grade china clay produced in the United States has been used in making paper. Some qualities of paper clays are still produced by the dry process, or air flotation, but the paper industry's specifications have grown so exacting that wet processing was adopted and more refined methods had to be perfected. Notwithstanding notable advances in clay-preparation technology during the past decade, or possibly because these advances have implemented and encouraged technologic changes in consuming industries, demand has grown for products of higher uniform quality than can be obtained from even the best natural deposits without rigidly controlled fractionation. Largely as a result of the wide adoption of machine coating for paper, the clay industry has been obliged not merely to eliminate virtually all mineral impurities but also to segregate the clay substance itself into narrow particle-size ranges. By extraordinary coordination of sales effort and production technology, several Georgia companies manage to market a wide variety of specialized joint products but the commercial success of many producers depends upon their mining only the best parts of their deposits and then skimming the cream of this almost pure clay in order to obtain a maximum yield of kaolinite finer than about 2 microns in maximum particle size and possessing low viscosity as well as the more familiar attributes of suitable color and brightness, or reflectance. To the casual visitor from another mineral industry, the kaolin mines and plants may appear to be

Jan 1, 1951