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By Walter Crafts

Tests carried out at the Union Carbide and Carbon Research Laboratories, Inc., on the effects of grain-refining deoxidizers are in substantial agreement with the data presented by Mr. Comstock. Notable is the observation that, although boron and aluminum increased hardenability, the steel was of poor quality in comparison with the other boron-treated steels to which at least two grain refiners were added. The effect of zirconium in improving the ductility of the chromium-nickel steel is in agreement with our experience that zirconium is specifically beneficial to chromium steels. In order to amplify Mr. Comstock's results and to indicate some of the basic principles of special deoxidation, the primary observations of our study have been summarized. The effect of boron in increasing hardenability was described by R. Walther, U. S. Patent No. 1519388, Dec. 16, 1924, but effective amounts in incompletely deoxidized steel are sufficient to harm hot workability and room-temperature ductility. Work at the Union Carbide and Carbon Research Laboratories, Inc., has shown that in order to obtain deep hardening without using such large amounts of boron as to result in impairment of ductility, the steel must be thoroughly deoxidized. This may be accomplished by a high silicon content or a grain-refining addition of strong deoxidizers. The degree of grain refinement and hardenability are inclined to be erratic when only one grain-refining element is used, although aluminum, zirconium, titanium, and vanadium have been used singly and resulted in increased. although somewhat erratic, hardenability. The ductility likewise was inclined to be inconsisterlt when only one grain-refining deoxidizer was added. By combinations of grain-refining elements, it was found possible to combine the specific virtues and counteract some of the defects of each clement. In addition, the complex deoxidizers gave more consistent grain refinement and hardenability. When used in combinations, each element adds its own specific influence as well as modifying the character of the other elements. The function of aluminum is primarily to give consistent results and to minimize abnormalities resulting from too

Jan 1, 1943

By B. J. Nelson, F. N. Rhines

STUDIES upon the rates of oxidation of copper alloys containing small quantities of the alloying elements1,2 have shown that steady growth of the scales at predictable rates is limited to a small concentration range and to oxidation at temperatures above 600°C., whereas unpredictable and erratic oxidation behavior is found with alloys containing larger additions and at low temperatures. The latter effect appears to be associated with modifications in the geometric disposition of the oxides. At low concentrations of the baser elements in copper, simple oxidation behavior is typified by the formation of two distinguishable zones of oxidation: (I) a subscale composed of discrete particles of the oxide of the alloying element embedded in substantially pure copper and (2) an external scale composed of cuprous oxide (with a very thin layer of cupric oxide on the outside) containing particles of the alloying element distributed throughout, but most profusely near the metal surface (see Fig. 2, top). Where this type of structure obtains, the process of oxidation is believed to be implemented, and its rate controlled, by the diffusion of the reacting elements through a continuous matrix phase; i.e., through the alpha (metallic) phase of the subscale and alloy and through the cuprous oxide of the external scale. Copper is presumed to diffuse outward through the cuprous oxide layer to the external surface, where it reacts to form more cuprous oxide.3 Oxygen is delivered at the oxide-metal interface in the form of cuprous oxide, which may either react with the alloying element to deposit its oxide at the inner limit of the external scale or dissolve in the pure copper that remains at the surface of the metal after it has become depleted in its oxidizable alloying elements. Both oxygen and the alloying element are pictured as diffusing through the metal, the oxygen inward and the alloying element outward. Where the two diffusion streams meet in sufficient concentration the oxide of the subscale is precipitated. If the oxygen pressure in the surrounding atmosphere is just below the pressure necessary to maintain cuprous oxide undecomposed, no cuprous oxide can be formed; some of the oxide of the alloying element may form upon the external surface, if its decomposition pressure is below that of cuprous oxide, and a normal subscale appears. This condition is achieved experimentally by enclosing the alloy with cuprous oxide together with an excess of copper. At temperatures from 600°C. downward, the precipitated oxides tend to accumulate at the grain boundaries of the alpha phase where a relatively small volume establishes a partial barrier to the diffusion of the reactants. Similarly, large volumes of precipitated oxides tend to deposit in various patterns that may be expected to hinder the diffusion of the reactants in the

Jan 1, 1943

By Alfred H. Bell, Charles W. Carter

In 1942, Illinois produced 106,590,000 bbl. of crude oil, or 7.6 per cent of the entire amount produced in the United States. It ranked fifth among the oil- producing states. The production for 1942 declined 20.5 per cent from the previous year's total of 134,139,000 bbl. Tie daily average production for 1942 was approximately 292,000 bbl., or 74,000 bbl; less than the 366,000 daily average for 1941. At the beginning of 1942 the daily production was 367,000 bbl. This production declined steadily to 282,000 for June and to 246,000 for December. This steady decline was caused partly by the reduction in drilling resulting from Federal Conservation Order M-68 and partly by the fact that no major pool was found during the year. Discoveries Forty new fields (Fig. 2, Table 2), 48 extensions (Table 3), and 45 additional producing zones in existing fields (Table 4) Were discovered in 23 counties in Illinois during 1942. Of the 40 new fields, three

Jan 1, 1943

The following list contains the names of members of whose deaths notices have been printed in MINING AND METALLURGY during the year ending April 1, 1939. Biographical sketches published in MINING AND METALLURGY are indicated in the last two columns.

Jan 1, 1943

By Nathaniel Arbiter, Arthur F. Taggart

The fact that the floatability of minerals with fatty-acid collectors changes as the pH of a pulp varies was utilized in the early days of flotation, when sulphuric acid was used with oleic acid to float sphalerite and galena. from gangues which themselves float with fatty acids in alkaline pulps. Gaudin1 showed that this difference in floatability is a regular function of the extent of the change in pH. The present paper offers an explanation of the phenomenon, and on the basis thereof sets up recommendations for control of soap-flotation operations. Experimental Parallelism between floatability of a mineral in a given environment and its contact angle in that environment is so well established,2 and the contact angle is so readily and rapidly measurable, that contact angles have been used throughout the experimental work to indicate relative floatability. Experiments comprised contact-angle measurements on a number of representative minerals and metals, and a variety of subsidiary tests designed to check and to amplify the contact-angle indications. Contact-angle measurements were made by the method described in detail by del Giudice.3 Sequence of procedure for determination of the points of Fig. I was: I. Polish specimen. Most specimens yielded zero contact angle after polishing; a few showed a slight "cling." Cling is characteristic of specimens that pit on polishing; it is due to a residue of organic contamination, originally on the particle surface, which persists in the pits. The cling did not change total contact angle after conditioning, and is not, therefore, additive in the upper part of the curves of Fig. I. It may have broadened the bases of the curves for the affected minerals slightly. 2. The specimen was next conditioned in soap solution for 5 minutes. 3. The conditioned particle was transferred, under conditions that precluded surface drying, to an aqueous solution of the pH desired and contact angle determined. 4. The particle was thereupon transferred, again without surface drying, to water. The confirmatory tests will be described at the places pertinent in the argument. Discussion of Results Gaudin and Vincent4 have shown that contact angles with heptoic acid as a collector decrease for a given specimen when the concentration of collector present falls below a certain value. A similar reduction in angle occurs with collector-conditioned particles that are visibly slime-coated, and varies roughly with the extent of coating. Since in the last case the reduction in angle is certainly due to reduction in the proportion of total conditioned mineral surface presented to the bubble, the authors believe that the same condition prevails in the first case cited, and that similar reduction in angle and floatability will occur whenever starvation quantities of collector are present, whether by design or by reason of excessive consumption.

Jan 1, 1943

By James Norman, O. C. Ralston, John Dasher

Most mineral products are used in the finely divided state, but some are sold in larger sizes. Coal, gravel, metallurgical fluorspar, phosphate rock, hematite, chro-mite, and other products are sold in sizes coarser than can be treated by many mineral-dressing methods. Gravity separation of coarser sizes by log washing and jigging is probably as ancient as any process now in use. The performance of jigs on a feed with sufficient difference in density of the minerals is excellent, but many families of minerals are too similar in density to be separated effectively by this method. The use of heavy suspensions of fine solids to separate coarse coal from bone and slate has been in use for some years. This separation by sink-and-float was limited until recently to light minerals. Development of galena and ferrosilicon as suspension media, by Minerals Beneficia-tion, Inc., at Mascot, Tenn., Pitcher, Okla., and Crosby, Minn., under patents granted during and since 1938, has permitted excellent results to be obtained on minerals of very similar densities up to 3.3. This process has been put In the hands of American Cyanamid Co. for exploitation, and further research now in progress may increase the density of suspension obtainable so that separations at a density of 4.0 may be practicable before this is published. The Huntington-Heberlein dense-medium process, developed in England, is also being commercialized in the United States by Sink and Float Corporation. Du Pont has developed a sink-and-float separation using halogenated hydrocarbons as parting liquids; at this writing, the method is used commercially only on coal but has been successful in the pilot plant on many other minerals using tetrabrom-ethane at densities up to 2.95. While these processes were being developed to extend the range of separation by difference in density to the coarser sizes, the Bureau of Mines was engaged in developing a process that will extend the range of separation by difference in wettability up to 2-in. size. War work has pushed aside its further development indefinitely. The results are published here with the hope that some use may be suggested that will justify post-war development, and so that readers that may be able to make immediate use of the scheme may have the information. Earlier Work It has been known since the time of Herodotus (B.C. 484(?)-425) that water-repellent particles will adhere to sticky surfaces. That early historian reports the recovery of gold from the mud of a lake

Jan 1, 1943

By J. H. Frye, J. W. Caum

ONE of the most important methods of increasing the hardness of metals is alloying. In spite of the widespread use of alloys, the fundamental mechanism of alloy hardening is little understood. This is true even of the simplest form of alloy, the primary substitutional solid solution in which solute atoms substitute for solvent atoms at random in the crystal lattice of the latter. A fundamental understanding of the mechanism of solid-solution hardening would be important, both because of the widespread use of alloys of this type and because of the light that might be thrown on the mechanism of hardening in more complicated alloys. The present investigation covers the hardness of primary substitutional solid solutions of zinc, gallium,, germanium; and arsenic in copper. All of these are B subgroup elements from the third period of the periodic table. Cu, Zn, Ga, Ge, and As are in groups I, II, III, IV, and V, respectively and lie just to the right of the transition elements. Because of their cost, it is unlikely that Ga-Cu and Ge-Cu solutions will ever be of commercial importance, but the intent of this study has been to discover some of the fundamentals of solid-solution hardening and it has been demonstrated that such a study is far more likely to be fruitful if alloys are made up on the basis of position of the constituent elements in the periodic table than if commercially important alloys are used. Many investigations have. been made of the hardness of substitutional solid solutions, but lack of attention to purity of the metals, infrequent grain-size control, and the use of varying testing techniques have virtually invalidated any comparisons. The purpose of most investigations has been to solve immediate problems and not to solve the primary problem: Why do solid solutions usually have a greater hardness than pure metals? PREVIOUS WORK Theories have been advanced to account for the hardness of solid solutions,, but relatively little experimental work has been done. Perhaps the first experimental work of merit was that of Norbury1 on copper alloys. He showed that for several alloys there was a correspondence between the hardness of one atomic per cent solutions and atomic volume of the solutions. More recently Brick, Martin, and Angier2 have investigated the effect of various solute elements on the hardness of copper. They concluded that the hardening effect of these solutes depended "primarily on the difference in atomic volume of solute and solvent or, relatedly, upon the parameter, change of the solvent or the extent of solid solubility." They also observed the effect of these elements on hardness and texture developed by rolling and by annealing of rolled material. Austin3 examined the hardness and response to heat-treatment of various iron solid solutions. Frye and Hume-Rothery4 measured the hardness of a number of silver solid solutions containing approximately

Jan 1, 1943

By R. R. Knuckey

HAVING been associated with the operation of the de Vooys process for coal, which has treated 13,000,000 tons per annum, and recognizing the process as of value in ore sorting, Huntington, Heberlein and Co. Ltd. (Great Britain) in 1936 made an examination of all other existing methods. In none of the pioneer applications had recognition been given to the necessity for maintaining certain conditions that are essential for sorting certain ores if a truly efficient separation by gravity alone is to be assured. Consequently, in 1936-1937 Huntington, Heberlein and Co. Ltd., with Pearson, employing certain ideas connected with the de Vooys application, commenced the development of a separator that would allow conformance with optimum conditions in the zone where separation is effected. Later, Holt and Wade added to the value of the original application by Wuensch, Rakowsky and others, whose conceptions are being successfully operated today. Meantime, Trostler had enhanced the value of the original H-H. process by improvements that are now embodied in operating plants, and today the process incorporates an improved apparatus and a stable medium that produce the optimum conditions for separation. These conditions are: 1. Elimination of disturbing currents in the separating zone; 2. Reduction to a minimum of medium-density differences throughout. the separating zone; 3. Stable medium of minimum viscosity to permit the unretarded fall of mineralized particles; 4. Removal of products of separation with minimum disturbance to the separating zone. DESIGN OF SEPARATOR The H-H. sink-and-float separator consists of a pyramidal tank in which the separation actually takes place, connected at the bottom with an inclined bucket elevator. The tank and the elevator are filled with medium to within a few inches of the top of the tank. Medium is fed into the separator at a variety of points, according to the type of ore being treated, and it is withdrawn from the separator at two points: (1) together with the float product, by means of a variable-speed paddle, at the surface of the medium, and (2) by flowing over an adjustable weir cut in the side of the elevator casing. The prepared ore is fed onto the surface of the medium. The intermediate paddles, which revolve at a slow speed of 2 to 5 r.p.m., move the floating ore across the bath from feed end to float-discharge end. The ore, which is heavier than the medium, sinks below the sweep of the paddles and reaches the boot of the bucket elevator, which discharges it without disturbance of the separating zone. These arrangements for withdrawing medium from the separator allow the use of minimum flows, which connote minimum

Jan 1, 1943

By R. W. Gurry

THERMODYNAMIC calculations indicate that boron is a better deoxidizer than silicon but probably is not quite as effective as aluminum. Boron should, therefore, be readily oxidized out of the open-hearth bath, which implies that it is not recovered in significant concentration from any scrap charged; also that, if added in the ladle, it tends to oxidize out during teeming unless protected by the presence of a. better deoxidizing agent. These conclusions do not apply to liquid cast iron, in which the oxygen content is much lower than in liquid steel. The possibility of conserving certain strategic alloying elements widely used in steelmaking, notably manganeie, chromium and molybdenum, by the use of boron, which in small concentration appears to be extraordinarily effective in promoting hardenability, raises a question as to what extent any boron present in the scrap charged into the open hearth is oxidized out during melting and subsequent refining. This question is significant because the optimum concentration of boron in the finished steel, which is fairly critical, would be very difficult to attain if the boron in the charge were largely retained in the metal. Moreover, unless boron is substantially eliminated in the open-hearth process its use on a large scale would eventually make it impossible to produce boron-free steel except by restricting the charge to virgin material. There is at present, unfortunately, virtually no satisfactory direct evidence to provide an answer to this question; but there are indications from practice that boron is oxidized out in the open hearth in the production of medium or low-carbon steel, although it may be retained if the carbon content remains fairly high; that is, if the oxygen is kept fairly low. In the absence of direct data, it is necessary to rely upon the indications of indirect evidence, the best approach now available being a thermodynamic calculation of the deoxidizing power of boron in liquid steel by the general method used so successfully by Chipman1 in his study of the reactions in the open-hearth process. The thermal data for boron, upon which such a calculation must be based, are reasonably satisfactory; the only quantities not directly determined are the entropy of melting of boron, the activity coefficient of boron in liquid steel, and the activity coefficient of B203 in an open-hearth slag; but these values may be estimated with ample accuracy. The results of this calculation, which is presented later, are given in Table I, together with corresponding data for other deoxidizing elements. This table shows the calculated residual content of oxygen in equilibrium with different residual concentrations of the deoxidizer in the metal;

Jan 1, 1943

By E. C. Carris

THE particular field of application of machines utilizing air currents as the primary separating medium is in the cleaning of the fine sizes of bituminous coal. Approximately 12,000,000 tons of bituminous coal were cleaned by air machines during 1940.They have not found any application for cleaning anthracite. Since the development and introduction of the first successful commercial pneumatic oscillating machine for cleaning bituminous coal in 1916, by the Sutton, Steele and Steele Co., Dallas, Texas, and the American Coal Cleaning Corporation, formerly of Welch, W. Va., four other successful pneumatic coal-cleaning machines have been developed and introduced to the American coal-mining industry: 1. Peale Davis: "Pneumo-Gravity" machine, 1924. 2. Arms "Concentrator," oscillating table, 1924. 3. Hey1 and Patterson oscillating table, 1927. 4. "Stump Air-Flow," pulsating air jig, 1932. Out of these five developments only the Sutton, Steele and Steele, or American Oscillating, and the Stump Air-Flow Jig remain on the market. They are the predominating pneumatic coal-cleaning machines in use in the United States. HISTORY OF AMERICAX TYPE SEPARATOR The first successful American machine, the CJ table (Fig. 1) was developed by the Sutton, Steele and Steele Co. The SJ table was the first standard model designed specifically for the cleaning of coal. It was installed in the original Crane Creek plant, owned and operated by the American Coal Co. at McComas, West Virginia. This plant was designed by The Roberts and Schaefer Co., Chicago, Ill., working in cooperation with the American Coal Cleaning Corporation, which had taken over the patent rights and sale of the pneumatic separators. Eight machines were installed in this plant. They were known as the type SJ. They were 60 by 84 in., the short dimension being the width of

Jan 1, 1943

By L. C. IlsLey

In the normal operation of mines, the aggregate effect of many seemingly minor op rations may be very important as respects economy and safety. Anion: these operations is the method employed in coupling and uncoupling mine cars. For economic reasons the equipment in mines has not been protected as well as railroad equipment. It is pertinent that haulage accidents rank second in severity among mine accidents, and that manual coupling of cars has been one of the most frequent causes of such accidents. One study4/ revealed that coupling was responsible for about 20 percent of haulage accidents underground. A review of early conditions on steam railroads, which were responsible for the introduction of safer methods of coupling cars, indicates how conditions in might be improved. THE STORY OF RAILROAD COUPLING As any considerable improvement in mine-car coupling probably will follow lines somewhat similar to those that brought order out of chaos for the railroads, it seems appropriate to review briefly the steps taken to improve railroad coupling from the days of link and pin couplings of various types to the adoption of the standard ?M.C.E? automatic coupler.

Jan 1, 1943

By Morris Cohen, Dara P. Anita, Frank S. Gardner

There is a conspicuous lack of information in the literature on the precise role played by residual quantities of austenite in heat-treated steels. While retained austenite may be expected to have significant effects on such important properties as the impact resistance of tools and carburized parts and the dimensional stability of dies and gauges, attempts to study these problems systematically have suffered from the absence of a reliable technique for ascertaining absolute amounts of austenite. With such a technique, not only could the relation between residual austenite and service behavior be investigated, but the chemical and heat-treatment factors that control the quantity of the austenite could also be established. Thus, the retained austenite content could then be regulated in accordance with the results desired. The presence of retained austenite may be inferred by observing the changes in properties (hardness, specific volume, electrical resistance, etc.) due to its decomposition on subatmospheric cooling1 or on tempering,2 but these indirect measurements are not readily translated into percentages of austenite. Quantitative determinations have been achieved in special cases by means of dilatometric3 and magnetic4,5 measurements; but the former procedure requires that observations be conducted during the hardening and involves difficult calibrations that limit its applicability, while the magnetic procedure is very sensitive to extraneous influences and depends upon assumptions that can only be considered as approximate in an absolute sense. Furthermore, both the dilatometric and magnetic effects are volume properties, and cannot be conveniently utilized to explore variations in retained austenite from point to point in a suecimen. Some microstructures lend themselves to accurate evaluation of retained austenite contents by metallo-graphic methods,3 but such instances are not too common, and at best, the procedure is tedious. The characteristic X-ray diffraction lines of austenite permit positive identification of its presence; and in the present paper the intensities of these lines, or the corresponding densities* on photographic film, are employed to measure the amount of the retained austenite. In order to cancel the effect of uncontrollable variations in the X - ray exposure and film - development conditions, a standard reference line is Superimposed on each film by maintaining a foil of aluminum in the path of the incident X-ray beam during the entire exposure. With different samples of steel and the same foil, the ratio of the density of some one austenite line to the density of

Jan 1, 1943

By Charles S. Barrett

THIS paper is a progress report covering metallographic applications of the electron microscope that have been made during the past year at Carnegie Institute of Technology. An account is presented of the techniques that have been most satisfactory, the difficulties encountered, the resolution obtained, and the peculiarities that have been noted in the microstructures. About 12m exposures have been made during the year on the instrument, which is an RCA type B2 transmission microscope,1 and a number of these have been selected to illustrate the results obtained. Prints are also included showing the common types of falsities-to borrow a term from the biological field, the "artifacts." In brief, the paper is a record of our attempt to determine the value of the electron microscope in the study of the structure of metals and alloys. n addition to comments on techniques and the quality of photomicrographs obtainable with them, the paper discusses the nature of the etch attack on a few metals, and the possible relation between the fine structure revealed by etching and the mosaic block structure of the grains. Since numerous papers and reviews are available on the subject of imperfection in crystals, the comments here may be very brief; in fact, are restricted almost entirely to points having to do with recent theories relating the strength of metals to imperfections and to spacings of slip lines. SPECIMEN PREPARATION AND PHOTOGRAPHS Mechanical polishing by hand was used throughout this work. Precautions that must be taken in microscopy at high magnification, which have been well explained by Vilella in his book on Metallographic Technique for Steel, are likewise important with the electron microscope. This applies particularly to the need for repeated polishing and etching (each successive polish becoming less severe and each etch lighter), since the final etch should in general be no heavier than is used for oil-immersion optical microscopy and in many instances should be much lighter (compare Figs. 6a and 7a, 6d and 7b). An extremely light etch, of course, is incapable of cutting through a flowed layer of appreciable thickness. Unquestionably it would be very advantageous in each instance to compare the structures obtained by electrolytic polishing with those obtained by mechanical polishing, but difficulties with the electrolytic method have prevented this in the following collection of prints. The choice of etchant is important, of course; for example, picral proved superior to nital for tempered martensite. With the exception of Figs. Ib and IC, the replicas used were of silica, deposited up0n polystyrene and floated from the polystyrene in ethyl bromide according to polystyrene in ethyl bromide according to the method of Heidenreich and Peck.2 The samples were mounted in Bakelite, polished and etched, then the polished Bakelite

Jan 1, 1943

Trans No. Place Date Vol. 1. Wilkes-Barre, Pa. May, '71 1 2. Bethlehem, Pa. Aug., '71 1 3. Troy, N. Nov., '71 1 4. Philadelphia, Pa. Feb., '72.. 1 5. New York, N. Y. May, '72 1 6. Pittsburgh, Pa. Oct., '72 1 7. Boston, Mass. Feb., '73 1 8. Philadelphia, Pa. May, '73 2 9. Easton, Pa. Oct., '73 2 10. New York N. Y. Feb., '74 2 11. St. Louis, Mo. May, '74 3 12. Hazleton, Pa. Oct., '74.. 3 13. New Haven, Conn. Feb., '75 3 14. Dover, N. J. May, '75 4 15. Cleveland, Ohio Oct., '75 4 16. Washington, D. C. Feb., '76 4 17. Philadelphia, Pa. June, '76 5 18. Philadelphia, Pa. Oct., '76 5

Jan 1, 1943

By John L. Lamont, Walter Crafts

THE principle formulated by Grossmann1 for calculating hardenability of steel by multiplying the ideal diameter of "pure" iron-carbon alloys by factors for grain size and alloying elements has been confirmed on many steels and has proved useful in designing substitute alloy steels. Grossmann found that the typical behavior of the multiplying factors was to increase directly in proportion to the amount of the alloy present in a steel. However, the multiplying factor for the effect of silicon on hardenability was found by Grossmann to increase to a lesser degree as the amount of silicon was increased. In view of the in¬creasing use of silicon in heat-treating steels, the effect of silicon on hardenability is becoming more important. Calculation of the hardenability of high-silicon steels made at the Union Carbide and Carbon Research Laboratories, Inc., indicated that the multiplying factor for silicon increased directly in proportion to the amount of silicon present. A more extended study of high-silicon steels covering fairly wide ranges of grain size, carbon, manganese, and aluminum has confirmed that up to 2 per cent silicon the multiplying factor is directly proportional to the silicon content. Manganese and aluminum factors have also been determined. The results of the study offer strong confirmation of the general validity of Grossmann's multiplying principle. TESTING PROCEDURE Steels on which the study of the effect of silicon on hardenability was based were made in high-frequency induction furnaces using Armco iron and standard alloying materials. The ingots were forged to bars, and sections were normalized prior to machining Jominy hardenability test specimens. The Jominy test was carried out under standard conditions.2 The depth of hardness penetration for determination of ideal diameter at "half hardness" was taken at the hardness level indicated in Fig. 20 in Grossmann's paper by the solid line for 50 per cent martensite in plain carbon steel. The depth of penetration of hardness on the Jominy specimen was converted to ideal diameter by the relation given in Fig. 28 of Grossmann's paper. Chemical analysis was determined on a sample taken adjacent to the Jominy specimen. Aluminum was determined as "acid-soluble aluminum" rather than as total aluminum, as it is probably more representative of the aluminum that is effective as an alloying agent. In addition to the elements nominally present in the steels, analyses were made for residual phosphorus, sulphur, nickel, copper, molybdenum and chromium on one heat of those made with the same materials during the same period. Actual grain size was determined by microscopic examination of small samples quenched in water after receiving the same thermal cycle as the Jominy hardenability specimens. Chemical analyses, heat-treatment, grain size, and hardenability are shown in Table I representing three ranges of composition.

Jan 1, 1943

By A. G. Pentland

PROSPECTING is popularly supposed to be surrounded with an air of romance and adventure. The word 'prospecting' brings to mind high mountains, northern lakes, and aeroplanes. A note of urgency has been added to this by the war, particularly in the case of strategic, minerals. Prospecting for strategic minerals in a modern mine in full production, although it may Jack the romance of travel in little-known places, has the advantage of having all the necessary machinery at hand and ready to go into action at a moment's notice. HISTORY Tin was discovered in the Sullivan ore in 1925, when a white streak was noticed on a pilot table which was being used to check the amount of galena in the tailing. The mineral which made up this streak was identified as cassiterite. The amount of tin in the ore is so small that, while of scientific interest, it was considered to be of very little economic importance. Nevertheless, several attempts were made to learn something of the occurrence during times when other work was nor pressing. These studies were dropped when anything came up that seemed more important.

Jan 1, 1943

Map

Jan 1, 1943

By R. G. Clay, C. F. Seaman

The mines of The Tennessee Copper Co. are in the Ducktown Basin, in southeastern Tennessee. The ore is a heavy sulphide consisting principally of chalcopyrite, pyrite and pyrrhotite and in places running as high as 95 per cent sulphur and iron. Operating mines are the Burra Burra and Eureka. Development ' of the Boyd ore body was started in 1940. Late in 1939 the decision was made to change from fuse and cap to all electric blasting and at the same time electric cap lamps were installed to replace carbide. These changes were made to improve the safety and working conditions in the mines. Both the Bureau of Mines and explosives manufacturers recommended electric blasting as a safety measure. Until that rime, electric blasting had been used only for shaft sinking and in places where it was absolutely essential for safety. Very few men had had experience in this type of blasting, as the places where it was required were those that also required direct supervision. It was necessary for the mining staff to work out methods, procedure, and equipment to be used. In this they were ably assisted by representatives of the explosives manufacturers. Many mistakes were made and it is the purpose of this paper to describe the original plan and installation, show the major difficulties encountered. the remedies applied, and present the practices now being followed. Comparison of costs of the two methods will also be discussed. About six months were required to make the change and eliminate fuse and cap blasting entirely. The first electric blasting stations were installed in November 1939 and the last fuse was taken underground in May 1940. A very unusual condition forced the use of fuse for a short time in one heading after May, but that will be discussed later. Original Equipment and Installation A power line is generally recommended as a source of current where permanent blasting stations are used. The plan worked out for electric blasting was to tap 220-volt alternating-current lines when they were available and use 250-volt direct current from the trolley wire at all other places. A blasting machine would be available at each shaft for places where there were no regular blasting stations and could be used if a regular station should fail. The equipment decided on was No. 16 duplex reinforced lamp cord for lines to within about 50 ft. of the working place and No. 20 lead wire from that point to the shots. An open double-pole, double-throw switch with slate base was put in the circuit, so connected that the down position would close the line to the shots 2nd the up position would connect it to the Iine from the power contactor. This switch was located in the circuit as close to the blast as was safe (should the shots explode when it was placed in the shooting

Jan 1, 1943

By Kendall E. Born

Production of crude oil in Tennessee during 1942 was approximately 8600 bbl., a decrease of 6500 bbl. from the production of 1941, and the lowest since 1934. As usual, the greater part of the production was from the Mississippian limestone pools in Scott and Morgan Counties. Some half dozen wells in Fentress and Clay Counties pumped intermittently produced about 1000 barrels. Natural gas was marketed from wells in Morgan and Fentress Counties for consumption in the Sunbright and Jamestown areas respectively. Figures are not available for the Morgan County production but 7,378,000 cu. ft. of natural gas was produced in the Jamestown gas field from six wells. The production of oil by counties is shown in Table I. Developments Drilling activities reached the lowest ebb since 1933. Only 10 wells were spudded during the year, one of which was drilling on Dec. 31, 1942. Of the nine completions, two were gas wells in the proven area south of Jamestown in Fentress County and seven were dry holes. The total footage drilled during the year was 14,198 ft.; the average depth of wells was 1578 ft. The completions are listed in Table 2. The distribution of tests according to physiographic divisions is given in Table 3. East Tennessee.—One well was drilled to 4219 ft., the second deepest well in the state, in Campbell County. The test was in the highly disturbed Valley and Ridge Province, an area long considered the most unfavorable in the state for the accumulation of oil and gas. Cumberland Plateau.-—There were no completions in the Cumberland Plateau area, although an old well drilled deeper found oil from 935 to 965 ft. in the Mississippi lime. This test has created a considerable amount of interest in the area and an active leasing campaign was underway early in 1943. Eastern Highland Rim.—Five completions on the Eastern Highland Rim brought in two small gas wells in Fentress County, which will be used to augment the supply for Jamestown. The producing horizons are shaly limestones of Ordovician (Trenton) age. Two wells in this area were drilled to the upper part of the Knox dolomite group. The most significant test during the year was the Stanolind Oil and Gas Company's test in Putnam County. This well, on a well-defined surface structure, was abandoned in the upper Knox dolomite group at 2130 ft. A show of oil was logged in the Knox at 1653 to 1661 ft. Northern Highland Rim.—Three tests widely separated in the Northern Highland Rim were dry.

Jan 1, 1943

By Frederic H. Wright

The secondary metals industry might well be defined as the group of remelters, smelters, refiners, and manufacturers that convert scrap metals or residues to commercial forms. In this industry, scrap metals and residues are processed to pro- duce refined metals, ingot alloys, fabricated shapes, and chemical products. Secondary metal is defined as metal recovered from commercial scrap, that is, scrap that has entered the processor's plant in scrap form. Metal recovered by a manufacturer from "home scrap" generated in his own plant is not considered to be secondary, because it represents part of the original stock that simply requires additional treatment before emerging as a finished product. In any economic study, a basic point of measurement must be chosen, and in the case of secondary metals, the melting pot or its counterpart represents the stage in which metal is converted from scrap to some more usable form. Beyond this point there is often no means to distinguish between secondary metal recovered from scrap and virgin metal produced directly from ore. In the last fifteen or twenty years the secondary metals industry has grown to major importance. Some consumers distrust secondary metals, but frequently this distrust serves only to prove an inability to keep up with the times. A rapidly decreasing number of manufacturers like to boast that they use only virgin metals, but a little investigation would show them that more than one third of all

Jan 1, 1943