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By R. Lepsoe

THE basic products of the Company are lead and zinc. Around 950 tons of these metals are produced each day. In the last decade, the production of by-products has increased to such an extent that they are now nearly as large an operation as that of the base-metals. Of the many by-products, the most objectionable, and up to a few years ago the most useless, was the sulphur. The sulphur comes in the ore from the Sullivan mine. It is in the ore chiefly as lead, zinc, and iron sulphide. By selective flotation, these three sulphides are separated into the lead concentrates, the zinc concentrates, and the mill tailings. These mill tailings contain the bulk of the iron and the sulphur. Of the 6,5CO tons of ore treated per day, about 5,000 tons are wasted to the mill tailings dump, and, while now valueless, will in future years undoubtedly be used as a source of iron and sulphur. There are about 1,500 tons of sulphur and 2,200 tons of iron per day in the tailings, and about 400 tons of sulphur left in the total concentrates. In the recovery of lead and zinc in the pure form, the first step is the roasting operation. Here, most of the sulphur is driven off as sulphur dioxide in the gases. It has always been apparent that this sulphur should be. recovered and utilized if possible. At the same time, this would cure the smoke nuisance. Because, in spite of the low concentration of sulphur dioxide and the fact that it was discharged from stacks at an elevation of 400 feet above the plant, some damage to vegetation close to the plant had been experienced.

Jan 1, 1937

By Nicholas J. Grant, John Chipman

A FULL understanding of the behavior of sulphur in the basic open-hearth process has been delayed by lack of dependable data covering a wide range of slag conditions in the absence of other complicating factors that are likely to be present under operating conditions. It has been generally accepted that strongly basic slags will dissolve more sulphur than will those in which the acidic and basic constituents are more nearly balanced. It has been known that both slag and metal would absorb sulphur from the flame when the sulphur content of the fuel is high. It has been generally believed that manganese assists in the transfer of sulphur from metal to slag. Almost nothing has been known of the effect of temperature upon desulphurization; the data have been conflicting and there has been a tendency to depend rather heavily upon analogy with the better understood desulphurizing reaction of the blast furnace. Many attempts have been made to build up from open-hearth data a satisfactory theory of the chemical reactions involved in the process. That this has been an extremely difficult task is owing to two reasons that have been very generally recognized. The first is the parallel and simultaneous reaction of sulphur transfer between flame and bath. The second is the difficulty of distinguishing between the factors that ultimately limit the transfer from metal to slag-i.e., equilibrium conditions-and those whose influence is only upon the rate of transfer. It has been the object of the work here recounted to study the equilibrium distribution of sulphur between slag and metal in the absence of these complicating factors, with the hope that a better understanding of the equilibria involved would lead to a better control of the over-all process in the open-hearth furnace. A review of the literature on steelmaking reveals almost complete agreement with respect to the paramount importance of lime in promoting desulphurization. In expressing this effect in quantitative terms, however, and in formulating the relationships between the concentrations of other slag components and the desulphurizing power, there is little agreement. For instance, the "basicity" or basic strength of the slag is commonly measured by some kind of ratio of concentration of basic to acidic oxides. Of these, the following have been reviewed by Schenck :20 [ ] Among others there appear the following:

Jan 1, 1946

By Jannie Maree, Dieks Theron, Ryneth Nengovhela, Patrick Hlabela

In extracting base metals from ore bodies, sulphide as well as oxide, the main environmental concern is sulphur, whether in the form of sulphurous gases or sulphate in liquid form. Generally sulphur is in over supply in developed countries mainly because of strict legislation to capture it. In developing countries on the other hand there is usually a shortage of sulphur because of less strict environmental legislation. Africa falls in this second category and the African continent imports substantial amounts of sulphur despite the fact that large quantities of sulphur is emitted by smelters, thermal power stations, coal mines, fertilizer manufacturers and others. Other than making acid from gaseous emissions, existing methods to capture sulphur from gaseous and liquid effluents are uneconomical and it ends up in the environment either as ammonium sulphate (from gaseous effluents) or as gypsum (from liquid effluents). The CSIR?s Environmentek and Pyroserv has developed a process whereby gaseous sulphur emissions and sulphates in liquid effluents can be economically captured and converted into elemental sulphur and metal carbonates. The elemental sulphur is of high purity as it is precipitated from a gas stream and is readily marketable. The metal carbonates (barium or calcium) can be recycled back to the process or marketed. The only harmful byproduct of the process is carbon dioxide. Should natural gas or methane be available the carbon dioxide could be reduced by about one third. Should solar, wind or hydro energy be available to generate hydrogen the carbon dioxide emissions would be zero. Employing this technology could make Africa independent of sulphur imports and furthermore reduce the impact of acid rain and seepage of sulfate from gypsum and other waste dumps into the environment.

Jan 1, 2005

In extracting base metals from orebodies, sulphide as well as oxide, the main environmental concern is sulphur, whether in the form of sulphurous gases or sulphate in liquid form. Generally sulphur is in over supply in developed countries mainly because of strict legislation to capture it. In developing countries, on the other hand there is usually a shortage of sulphur because of less strict environ-mental legislation. Africa falls in this second category and the African continent imports substantial amounts of sulphur, despite the fact that large quantities of sulphur are emitted by smelters, thermal power stations, coalmines, fertilizer manufacturers and others. Other than making acid from gaseous emissions, existing methods to capture sulphur from gaseous and liquid effluents are uneconomical and it ends up in the environment either as ammonium sulphate (from gaseous effluents) or as gypsum (from liquid effluents). The CSIR?s Environmentek and Key Structure Holdings have developed a process whereby gaseous sulphur emissions and sulphates in liquid effluents can be economically captured and converted into elemental sulphur and metal carbonates. The elemental sulphur is of high purity as it is precipitated from a gas stream and is readily marketable. The metal carbonates (barium or calcium) can be recycled back to the process or marketed. The only harmful by-product of the process is carbon dioxide. Should natural gas or methane be available, the carbon dioxide could be reduced by about one third. Should solar, wind or hydro energy be available to generate hydrogen, the carbon dioxide emissions would be zero. Employing this technology could make Africa independent of sulphur imports and furthermore reduce the impact of acid rain and seepage of sulphate from gypsum and other waste dumps into the environment.

Jan 1, 2005

By Dale L. McKinnon, Jean-Pierre Farant

"Dust collectors are used to reduce airborne dust levels generated during crushing at a mining operation and their adequate maintenance is required to ensure effective control of health and safety hazards associated with dusty conditions. Although the pitot traverse technique is commonly employed to balance these dust collectors, the use of an alternative-the equilibrium concentration tracer gas method-is proposed in this paper. This method, which uses sulphur hexafluoride as a tracer gas, can be used to balance airflows in dust collectors and to determine hood collection efficiency accurately and effectively. This technique also reduces some of the errors inherent to pitot tube measurements. IntroductionIndustrial dust collectors are used to reduce dust genera ted by processes like cru shin g, and these must be periodically checked and balanced to ensure continuing effective control of health and safety hazards associated with dusty conditions.To date, the pitot tub e traverse technique has been commonly used to balance air flows in dust collectors. However, this technique is both time -consuming and cumbersome. The equilibrium concentration tracer gas method, described in this paper, is proposed as a viable alternative as it is faster, more reliable, and amenable to automation. The use of tracer gases for such task s is not new. This approach has been used in a variety of mining situations to determine volumetric flow rates in underground openings, leak age through mine stoppings, the effectiveness of face ventilation, pollution migration patterns, mine air recirculation rates, and rock porosity."

Jan 1, 1986

By F. Louis Grammer

THE difference between blast-furnace gas and ordinary producer-gas is chiefly that blast-furnace gas is richer in CO, and poorer in hydrocarbons and hydrogen, as is shown in Table I. TABLE I.-Volume-Composition of Producer-Gas and Blast-Furnace Gas.. Producer-Gas. Blast-Furnace Gas. Per Cent. Per Cent. (Volume.) (Volume.) CO . 22 to 33 25.5 00., . 6 to 3 13.0 H . . 13 to 7 1.5 CH, 3 to 1.5 0.0 N . 54 to 60 60.0 If natural gas, water-gas, or by-product coke-oven gas be available, blast-furnace gas can be made to resemble very closely in calorific value the average producer-gas by merely mixing in one of these products, which are richer in hydro-carbons and, hydrogen. Blast-furnace gas, however, possesses a virtue which is sometimes absent in producer-gas, especially with coals very high in sulphur-namely, that blast-furnace gas is relatively free from sulphur. In some regions the sulphur in coal is an acute problem, and it is highly desirable to find uses for the products which are specially high in sulphur-content. An advantage would be gained if coal was coked before charging into the gas-producers, but this adds to the expense. Sulphur may be partly eliminated from coal by washing it, the success depending upon the form in which the sulphur occurs, and upon the efficiency of the washer, but it cannot always be removed to the extent desired at most American plants. It is not practicable to remove all the sulphur from producer-gas by washing it, though Mr. Reinhardt, of Germany,

Sep 1, 1908

By J. A. M. Cano

A brief introduction is made on the existence of sulphides in the top gas of the Midrex Shaft Furnace, giving consideration to the operation of the furnace and the liberation of sulphur as well as its consequential effects on the reduction process. The text shows a study of sulphur distribution in the pellet, emphasizing the importance of this distribution in relation to the liberation of sulphur during the reduction. A study was made to determine the sulphur compounds that exist in the pellets, showing ways of controlling the sulphur distribution and reducing its liberation?during the reduction.

Jan 1, 1989

By Elgin D. Bell

Within the next, year or two, Western Canada should overtake Mexico and France. to become the worlds second largest producer of elemental sulphur, surpassed only by the United States, By 1965, it should produce about 25% of the world's total elemental production and, about 10% of sulphur produced in all forms. In 1952 Alberta had but one small sulphur recovery plant. By 1962, it had fifteen plants with a total designed capacity of almost 6,000 long tons of sulphur per day and actual production of almost one million long tons per year. This decade of dynamic growth was the result of Alberta's rapidly developing natural gas industry. More particularly it was the result of approval in 1960 to export natural gas in large volumes into the United States. Prior approval to export gas from Alberta to eastern Canada and relatively modest volumes to the U. S. had resulted in the construction of several plants but none were of the scale required to serve the U. S. market.

Jan 1, 1963

By R. A. Ixer, R. A. Lord, H. M. Prichard, A. J. Boyce, P. McConville, C. T. Pillinger, I. P. Wright, J. Maynard

Analysis of 62 samples show that the sulphides throughout the igneous stratigraphy have a magmatic signature, with the exception of the uppermost gabbros and the lowermost basal thrust talc-carbonate lithologies. Mean delta-34S values for whole-rock samples from harzburgites, dunite pods in harzburgite, crustal dunites and wehrlites, the main and high-level pyroxenites and gabbros suggest that the primary sulphides derived their sulphur from a magmatic source enriched in 34S. This finding is compatible with the proposed origin of the ophiolite above a subduction zone. Values for pyrite mineralisation in the uppermost part of the gabbros are thought to result from precipitation from a seawater-derived fluid, while isotopically light sulphur in the basal thrust could have been introduced from underlying metasediments. The replacement of pentlandite by heazlewoodite has not led to sulphur fractionation

Jun 19, 1905

By Richards JR, Herbert HK

A basic question in preparing this review was how to define sulphur mineral occurrences as being associated with the Pacific Rim. This question will be reconsidered later. The isotope composition of sulphur- containing minerals may be considered in terms of two primary sources - 1. deep- seated sulphur, devoid of crustal contam- ination with a 634S value near 00/0o and 2. oceanic sulphate which fluctuated in value between +10 and +300/00 over geological time (Claypool et al., 1980). However, minerals have seldom been directly derived from these primary sources as even evaporites have been dissolved and reprecipitated. The marine source is differentiated biochemically and isotopically in recent sediments where sulphide from bacterial sulphate reduction may be significantly depleted in 31S. The question of chemical interaction of ascend- ing magma with upper crustal rocks has become one of degree rather than whether or not it occurs. Mineral deposition is considered increasingly in terms of mixing of fluids and their chemical reactions with rocks rather than direct precipitation from magmas or hydrothermal fluids derived from them.

Jan 1, 1987

By Leo J. Miller

Sulphur deposits occur within the upper Salado and Rustler gypsum beds. The formation of a sulphur ore deposit requires large quantities of oil and /or gas, which must find a permeable pathway into the gypsum beds. The Permian beds weathered for 90 million years in an arid environment prior to the advent of a more humid climate at the beginning of the Cretaceous Period. The first Cretaceous rivers enlarged the sinkholes and caverns of the Karstified Permian terrain and deposited coarse conglomerates and sands into the subsurface gypsum beds. The resulting network of caverns and sinkholes, filled with permeable sediments, permitted the free flow of hydrocarbons through gypsum. All sinkholes and caverns infilled with Cretaceous sediments that have penetrated beds of gypsum are associated with sulphur deposits. The Castile gypsum lies directly upon the oil bearing Bell Canyon formation. Sinkholes and caverns filled with Cretaceous sediments occur in the lower Castile. Biogenic calcite and sulphur are adjacent to these sediments. However, faults assume the major role in generating the initial permeability, allowing hydrocarbons to penetrate the lower Castile gypsum. The largest faults are associated with biogenic calcite and sulphur for a distance of 250 meters up from the bottom of the Castile gypsum. It is apparent that two dynamic geological processes are generating permeability within the gypsum beds: (1) the Cretaceous sands decending with difficulty into gypsum and (2) the faults creating permeability in the lower Castile but losing energy through soft bed deformation in the overlying gypsum. Both of these sulphur ore controls are mappable, but another large sulphur deposit of the magnitude of the Culberson Sulphur Mine has yet to be discovered. It appears that massive sulphur deposits are associated with the largest scale examples of each system, that is (1) high densities of deep sinkholes and separately

Jan 1, 1992

By Victor F. Hollister

Elemental sulphur occurs as aformational sedimentary deposit in Upper Devonian Wabamun evaporites near Coronation, Alberta. The deposit developed in a stratigraphic jacies-change lrap; it is assumed that petroleum reacted with anhydrite to form sulphur, calcite, hydrogen sulphide and other reaction products. The deposit contains about 362,800 tonnes of sulphur and lies at a depth of 1200 m. The Coronation deposit is expected to be geologically typical of such other native sulphur deposits as may be found in Wabamun Group sediments. Widespread sour gas sulphur production f rom the Wabamun suggests the possibility that additional native sulphur deposits will ·be found.

Jan 1, 1984

By H. W. Manley

SULPHUR, like the minerals of coal, iron and petroleum, is one of the essential materials in our modern expanding industrial civilization. Before discussing the salient features of the production of sulphur from the Canadian sour gas, it seems appropriate to outline the historical past and probable future utilization of sulphur. The ancient Greek writer Homer spoke of its "pest-averting sulphur" and the "divine purifying fumigation". Ancient alchemists found sulphur to be a fascinating and baffling material. The discovery of gun powder in the year of 1250, and its application to the art of war a, century later, made sulphur an important commodity in the progress of mankind. The initial manufacture of sulphuric acid in the year of 1736 by the Englishman Joshua Ward, established the basis of a chemical industry that today utilizes 80 per cent of the consumption of elemental sulphur. Commercial production of the chemical soda ash ( N a2C03) discovered in 1787 by the famous Leblanc Process, in-creased international demand for the element sulphur and marks the birthday of the Sicilian sulphur industry.

Jan 1, 1961

By Thomas P. Forbath

THE sudden realization that known sulphur reserves amenable to mining by the Frasch hot water process are nearing exhaustion focused attention on widely scattered surface deposits throughout the world. These deposits are not necessarily of lower sulphur content than ores located underneath Louisiana or Texas salt domes which usually aver- age about 30 pct sulphur disseminated in limestone matrix. Their near surface occurrence, however, renders exploitation by the Frasch process impossible. As is well known, the Frasch process depends on the presence of 500 to 1000 ft of overburden and cap rock above the sulphur deposits to permit melting underground sulphur in place by diffusing hot water under pressures of 200 to 600 psig in the formation and raising the molten sulphur to surface by air lift. This process renders possible the production of pure sulphur which is 99.5 pct pure without any subsequent treatment.

Jan 9, 1953

By G. A. McGuffin

"IntroductionWITH the increase in quantity of sour gas reserves in the Province of Alberta, and the wider market for sulphur brought about by mounting world demand and restrictions placed on the principal supply, it was inevitable that this important source of sulphur would be .developed. In the light of these facts, it seems timely that a general paper on sulphur recovery from petroleum gases be presented. This, then, is the purpose of the following text. A short discussion of each of the following subjects is presented:(1) Properties and uses of sulphur(2) Existing sources(3) Market research(4) The recovery process in Turner Valley(5) Hazards of sulphur productionNo pretext of originality of material is made since innumerable reports have been prepared on this and related topics and information contained in these has been used quite liberally.Properties and uses of SulphurSulphur is a non-metallic element having an atomic weight of 32.06. The stable crystalline form at atmospheric temperature is referred to as 'rhombic' sulphur. It is bright yellow and has a specific gravity of 2.05, equivalent to 129.2 lb./cu. Ft. Above 204°F. sulphur has another stable crystalline form, referred to as 'monoclinic'. This is reddish-brown and is slightly less dense than the rhombic variety (122.4 lb./cu. Ft.). Sulphur in bulk form weighs 84 to 90 lb. per cu. Ft. Sulphur melts at approximately 240°F. to a straw coloured liquid which is quite viscous."

Jan 1, 1952

By D. C. Sisti

A paper was presented during the 1970 SME Fall Meeting on the Stinson Preparation Facilities by representatives of Beaver Creek Consolidated Cool Company and Heyl & Patterson, Inc. This paper summarized a combined approach to development of a flow diagram and selection of cleaning equipment required to produce a uniform metallurgical coal at maximum recovery with special emphasis on sulphur reduction. These facilities were located in the Elkhorn. Coal Fields of eastern Kentucky and, in particular, the area of Wayland, Knott County, Kentucky, where approximately forty-five- million tons of Elkhorn No. 3 coal could he recovered. The facilities incorporated a Bradford Breaker for reduction of the ROM coal to minus 1-1/2 x 0, 6000 ton-raw coal storage, preparation plant, water clarification and thermal drying facilities, clean coal storage and a 4000 TPH unit train loading facility.

Jan 1, 1973

By M. E. D. Raymont

"During the history of the sulphur industry there have been three distinct phases of production. Factors controlling supplies during these periods have shifted from demand for sulphur to demand for energy and a cleaner environment. The pattern of brimstone production is t raced through these phases and includes estimates of future supply; these indicate an involuntary excess production of some 20 million plus tons per year by 1980 unless some large-scale new uses are found. Traditional uses for sulphur, including fertilizer, chemicals, fibers, etc., are generally expanding slowly; how• ever, supply in ""by-product"" form alone will soon outstrip demand. The predicted oversupply situation can be corrected by the development of novel potential markets. Promising areas include construction materials, insulation and plastics, among others."

Jan 1, 1972

The results of about 30 years of exploration and mining activities and research studies in the Kambalda mining district, Western Australia, have led to general agreement that the komatiite-associated Ni sulphide ores formed as a result of igneous processes (Ross, 1974; Ross and Hopkins, 1975; Gresham and Loftus-Hills, 1981; Cowden, 1988; Lesher, 1989 and many others). Despite this agreement, the controls on sulphide supersaturation and concentration of the resulting sulphide in a limited zone, remain uncertain and controversial. A major uncertainty is the source of sulphur in the ore deposits. Two principal sulphur sources have been proposed: 1. komatiite lava/magma (Hudson, 1972; Naldrett, 1973; Lesher et al, 1981; Cowden, 1988; Foster et at, 1995), and 2. sedimentary material (Groves, Barrett and McQueen, 1979; Lesher, Arndt and Groves, 1984; Lesher, 1989; Lesher and Campbell, 1993). Resolution of the uncertainty regarding the sulphur source is required for a complete understanding of the controls on ore formation, which in turn would significantly impact exploration strategies in the Kambalda mining district and elsewhere. This paper reviews the constraints on sulphur sources for the komatiite-associated Ni sulphide ores in the Kambalda mining district. The focus is on the general characteristics of the ores and surrounding rocks: individual ore deposits are not described, though specific examples are noted where appropriate. The stratigraphic and volcanic settings and geochemical (major and trace element and isotopic compositions) characteristics of the ore deposits and surrounding rocks are considered within the context of the competing sulphur source models, and future directions of research in the district are noted.

Jan 1, 1996

By G. H. K. Pearse

Sulphur is derived from both 'voluntary' and 'involuntary' production. The former category includes sulphur obtained from elemental sulphur deposits and from pyrite and gypsumanhydrite deposits. Sulphur in the latter category is produced by pollution abatement at fossil Juel plants and from treatment of metallic sulphides. Canada is the world's largest sulphur exporter and third largest producer. Main resources of Canadian sulphur are sulphurous fossil fuels, metallic sulphides and native sulphur. Only the first two sources have produced sulphur in Canada 10 date; the first source accounts for over 85% of total Canadian production. Future sulphur sources will be derived increasingly through pollution abatement and decreasingly through voluntary production.

Jan 1, 1984

By D. J. Brennan

A techno-economic study is in progress, examining process and product options for treating smelter gases containing various concentrations of sulphur dioxide. Key contenders have been examined within an Australian context using the following criteria: * Markets for products * Capital Costs * Operating Costs * Waste streams generated Product options considered thus far are sulphuric acid, sulphur, calcium sulphite and gypsum. The development of an appropriate overall framework for evaluating process and product options is discussed and findings thus far presented. The emerging techno-economic study offers promise as a constructive guide to future policy decisions by industry and government.

Jan 1, 1994