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By Lok M. Sharma

Development of brownfields is of great interest in these days. Such fields are not easily adaptable for foundations of structures. The uncertainties in ground behavior present challenges of unpredictable subsidence that could be detrimental to the build up facility. A desalination plant had to be located along the seashore, close to the needy population and the existing water supply infrastructure. The available site had been developed as a recreational park area over a dumped construction demolition debris landfill along the coastline. To construct a desalination plant comprised primarily of large concrete basin tanks on slab, founded on the debris fill had its challenges. A ground improvement system in the form of vibro replacement stone columns was designed and constructed. Approximately 5,000 stone columns were installed across the site. This paper describes the analysis process, the design, field load testing, and installation of stone columns. Difficulties during construction and monitoring aspects are briefly described. The plant started operations in the summer of 2008 and to date has performed satisfactorily. When properly designed, the development of brownfields is achievable at other sites.

Jan 1, 2009

By W. S. McDonald

PRACTICALLY all dusts derived from organic matter are explosive and instances are recorded of explosions-some of them extremely violent-having occurred in grain elevators and flour mills. While a discussion of the explosibility of dusts in general, doubtless, would be of more than academic value, it will be of greater interest, on this occasion, to consider various phases of the problems connected with the hazards arising from coal dust. Extensive and valuable research has been carried out during the past few decades on the subject of coal-dust explosions and a great part of this work has been concerned with the preventive effect of stone or other incombustible dusts. Four men have been outstanding in this very substantial achievement. The first is Dr. W. Galloway, who succeeded in demonstrating by experiments that one pound of coal dust mixed with 150 cu. ft. of air formed an explosive mixture. The next is Sir W. Garforth, who proved that stone dust is an effective preventive for coal-dust explosion. The third is G. Haon, and last but not least, L. G. Hill, both of whom laboured incessantly to produce a suitable stone-dust and a satisfactory method of application. Today, mining men all over the world are satisfied and convinced that stone dust, if properly applied, will prove effective in greatly minimizing, if not completely preventing, explosions of coal dust, as has been demonstrated in experimental mines, as well as in actual explosions, in practically every coal mining industry.

Jan 1, 1938

By Nelson Severinghaus

Consolidated Quarries Corp. must conduct operations for an average sales price of $1.25 per ton, about the same price at which stone was sold 25 years ago when the dollar was worth twice what it is now. To maintain success in a competitive business, the company must solve the usual production problems, which will be discussed here in the order they occur in the flowsheet. Most crushed stone quarries must first remove soil and decomposed rock. Although seasons of lower sales sometimes release regular quarry excavating and haulage equipment for this purpose, overburden is often too extensive for this method to be used. In such cases, special equipment must be assigned or the job may be contracted. As many earthmoving contractors have heavy duty specialized equipment well suited to overburden removal, they should be seriously considered before the job is undertaken. Pockets of clay beneath peaks of hard stone sometimes defy mechanized removal. Pick and shovel laborers at this point might be supplanted by more ingenious use of pumps and water or some other mechanical means. Where overburden is extremely heavy or difficult to remove, underground mining must be considered.

Mar 1, 1956

By Maria I. De Rosa

Table 55 and figure 19 show the number of fires and fire injuries for stone mills by state during 1990-2001. Table 55 also shows the injury risk rates, employees' working hours, and lost workdays. In all, 118 fires occurred in 33 states. Seventy-six of the fires caused 82 injuries (including 8 fires and 6 injuries involving contractors). The yearly average was 9.8 fires and 6.8 injuries. The Ewhr value was 873 x 106 hr (In = 0.019), and the LWD value was 1,911. Missouri had the most fires (16 fires and 9 injuries), followed by Pennsylvania (15 fires and 14 injuries), Michigan (9 fires and 5 injuries), and Virginia (7 fires and 5 injuries). Of these states, Virginia had the highest injury risk rate value (In = 0.09 1). Table 56, partly illustrated in figure 20, shows the number of fires, fire injuries, risk rates, employees' working hours, and lost workdays by time period. The number of fires and fire injuries decreased during most of the periods, with a sharp increase during the last period. The number of employees' working hours increased throughout the periods. The In values follow patterns similar to those shown by the injury values. Tables 57-63 show the number of fires by ignition source, method of detection and suppression, equipment involved, location, and burning material by time period. Figure 21 shows the major variables related to fires for 1990-2001. Table 63 shows the fire injuries per number of fires causing injuries and total fires by year, ignition source, equipment involved, and location.

Jan 1, 2004

By V. Scovazzo

Cost-effective underground mine configurations have been designed in highly fractured rock masses where the stone possesses a high material strength. A limestone mine in the eastern United States is used to demonstrate procedures for the geotechnical design of one such operation. The mine discussed is located in both limbs and the axis of a recumbent fold that fractured the rock mass. In a highly fractured rock mass, where the host rock has high strength, a design can be developed to alleviate intact rock failure. This is possible because in most cases as the stress levels needed for intact failures are approached, the stresses are quickly dissipated due to movement along discontinuities, which represent planes of weakness. As a result most underground failures in highly fractured rock are due to sliding or toppling. Even when intact rock fails in a highly fractured rock mass, it is the movement along an existing joint or other weakness plane that often initiates or causes this failure. It is therefore important to obtain the characteristics of weakness planes that are the discontinuities within the mass. The required information on weakness planes, geology, and strength of materials is discussed and recommendations for obtaining this information are presented. A discussion is provided on failure modes and the use of developed information for their evaluation. The impact on geotechnical design is demonstrated through pillar sizing procedures; however, this approach can also be applied to mine roof and pillar foundations.

Jan 1, 2004

By Vincent Scovazzo

Cost-effective underground mine configurations have been designed in highly fractured rock masses where the stone possesses a high material strength. A limestone mine in the eastern United States is used to demonstrate procedures for the geotechnical design of one such operation. The mine discussed is located in both limbs and the axis of a recumbent fold that fractured the rock mass. In a highly fractured rock mass, where the host rock has high strength, a design can be developed to alleviate intact rock failure. This is possible because in most cases as the stress levels needed for intact failures are approached, the stresses are quickly dissipated due to movement along discontinuities, which represent planes of weakness. As a result most underground failures in highly fractured rock are due to sliding or toppling. Even when intact rock fails in a highly fractured rock mass, it is the movement along an existing joint or other weakness plane that often initiates or causes this failure. It is therefore important to obtain the characteristics of weakness planes that are the discontinuities within the mass. The required information on weakness planes, geology, and strength of materials is discussed and recommendations for obtaining this information are presented. A discussion is provided on failure modes and the use of developed information for their evaluation. The impact on geotechnical design is demonstrated through pillar sizing procedures; however, this approach can also be applied to mine roof and pillar foundations.

Jan 1, 2002

Jul 1, 2003

1. In 2002, a total of 4,311 stone mining operations reported employment to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). The major industrial classifications in stone mining are dimension stone (used for construction purposes), crushed and broken stone (aggregates), cement, and lime. Stone mines comprised 29.7% of all mining operations. • Mines producing crushed and broken stone (n = 3,372) comprised 78.2% of all stone mining operations.

Jan 1, 2004

In 2005, a total of 4,490 stone mining operations reported employment to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). Stone mines comprised 30.6% of all mining operations. ? Mines producing the primary commodity of limestone (crushed and broken) comprised the largest number of operations (n=2,039; 45.4%). ? Stone mining operations were located in all states and territories except Delaware and North Dakota. ? Of all states, Pennsylvania had the most stone mines (n=379; 8.4%).

Jan 1, 2008

In 2006, a total of 4,573 stone mining operations reported employment to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA).1 Stone mines comprised 30.7% of all mining operations. ? Mines producing the primary commodity of limestone (crushed and broken) comprised the largest number of operations (n=2,042; 44.7%). ? Stone mining operations were located in all states and territories except Delaware and North Dakota. ? Pennsylvania had the most stone mines (n=368; 8.0%), followed by Texas (n=342; 7.5%).

Jan 1, 2008

In 2007, a total of 4,639 stone mining operations reported employment to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA).1 Stone mines comprised 31.2% of all mining operations. ? Mines producing the primary commodity of limestone (crushed and broken) comprised the largest number of operations (n=2,051; 44.2%). ? Stone mining operations were located in all states and territories except Delaware and North Dakota. ? Pennsylvania had the most stone mines (n=373; 8.0%), followed by Texas (n=352; 7.6%).

Aug 1, 2009

1. In 2003, a total of 4,357 stone mining operations reported employment to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). The major industrial classifications in stone mining are dimension stone (used for construction purposes), crushed and broken stone (aggregates), cement, and lime. • Stone mines comprised 30.3% of all mining operations. • Mines producing crushed and broken stone (n = 3,412) comprised 78.3% of all stone mining operations.

Feb 1, 2005

In 2004, a total of 4,401 stone mining operations reported employment to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). Stone mines comprised 30.4% of all mining operations.

Sep 1, 2007

By Dean H. Herrick

The production of crushed stone in the United States has exceeded 1.0 Gtpy since 1987. Eighty percent of the crushed stone produced is used in the aggregate industry, accounting for over half of the quantity of natural aggregate consumed in the United States. Approximately 718 of the crushed stone produced in 1989 was limestone and dolomite followed by granite, traprock, sandstone and quartzite, miscellaneous stone, marble, shell, calcareous marl, volcanic cinder and scoria, and slate in order of descending volume (Table 1). Of the remaining 20% crushed stone produced in the United States and not used as aggregate, 12% is used in the manufacture of cement which is an important construction material. Only 8% of crushed stone is used in specialty products not associated with the construction industry. Therefore, this chapter will concentrate on crushed stone as used in aggregates, with occasional reference to other uses or to chapters which discuss specific nonconstruction uses of crushed stone. Construction aggregates are hard, essentially inert materials suitable for being formed into a stable mass by the addition of cementing or binding materials that produce a concrete by compaction, or by natural weight to produce a road or foundation fill. Aggregates are usually from 80 to 100% of the material volume of the construction masses in which they are used. Conditions necessary for a rock deposit to be developed for construction crushed stone include: Quality-should pass rigid specifications for strength and durability; Quantity-adequate volume of rock is needed to have a production life of at least 10 years, preferably 20 or more years; Market-must have adequate market to support a new crushed stone operation; Transportation-transportation cost must be competitive for the intended market; Environmental-the impacts of mining, processing and transportation of crushed stone on the environment at or surrounding the mine site must be within acceptable limits; Permitability-mining, processing and transportation of crushed stone must usually be permitted by governing agency. The following discussion will touch upon all facets of crushed stone operations from the mineral deposit and its geology to technology, uses, economic factors and end with governmental regulations of mining crushed stone. The sections are not designed to answer all questions, but rather to be an introduction to the crushed stone industry. Where more information is required, The Aggregate Handbook by Barksdale (1991) is recommended as the best general source.

Jan 1, 1994

By W. Robert Power

Stone is considered by many to be the premium material for beauty and durability in all kinds of construction. Its use dates to the dawn of civilization and only buildings made of stone have survived from ancient times. The use of stone relative to other materials declined from the beginning of the present century reaching a low point in the third quarter, but there has been a resurgence in the use of stone in construction during the past decade, due probably, to new techniques for producing stone, a greater recognition of its beauty and durability, and greater affluence among consumers. The aesthetic appeal of stone is attested to by the many attempts to simulate it in synthetic materials. Today, natural stone is considered by many to be the ultimate in aesthetic appeal, durability, and ease of maintenance. Consumption of dimension stone has increased dramatically during the past decade. The US Bureau of Mines reported that the total value of US consumption in 1978 was $1 13 million and that total imports were valued at $65 million in 1979 (Anon., 1980). In 1989 consumption of domestic dimension stone was valued at $208.3 million and imports at $525 million. This dramatic increase occurred after demand had decreased at an average rate of 2.5% in the two decades prior to 1978 (Anon., 1980). More than half of the imports come from Italy, but production of dimension stone has increased worldwide spectacularly. Meaningful statistics on dimension stone are hard to acquire. The finished piece of stone is a highly value-added product, but stone may be sold as rough blocks, sawed slabs, or finished product. The same piece of stone may therefore be sold and reported three or more times. Furthermore, although the quantity of stone is most commonly reported in tons, stone cladding is more often sold by the surface area and at the same price for different thicknesses. By any measure, however, the production and consumption of dimension stone has increased dramatically during the past decade. A significant indication of the resurgence of stone was the introduction of two new trade publications during the 1980s. Stone World (Tradelink Publishing Co., Inc., Oradell, NJ), introduced in 1984 is published monthly and Dimensional Stone (Dimensional Stone Institute, Inc., Woodland Hills, CA), introduced in 1985 is published monthly. Both magazines provide useful information on new technology, market trends, producing areas and companies, and other information not previously available.

Jan 1, 1994

By Thomas Mucho, Anthony Iannacchione

This marks the 100th year that the aggregate industry has been served by a national association. Of all the accomplishments this longstanding relationship has achieved, there is probably none greater than the progress made, in worker safety. Perhaps the best way to measure this success is to examine injury trends in the aggregate miner population. For example, in the first half of the 20th [ ] century, 16 quarry mining disasters (a "disaster" is an incident with five or more fatalities) claimed 157 miners between 1909 and 1952. The largest of these was the disaster at the Sandts Eddy Limestone Quarry near Allentown, Pa., on March 26, 1942, where 31 miners died of asphyxiation by fumes/explosion. Thankfully, no mining disasters have occurred in the aggregate industry since 1952. It is these kinds of information that help us characterize improvements in aggregate worker safety over the last 100 years.

Jan 1, 2003

By Gift Makusha

The Witbank Coalfield in South Africa contains up to five economically viable coal seams. These seams have been mined continuously for over 100 years and the reserve in now becoming depleted. The normal mining method has been bord and pillar with examples of stooping. The situation now occurs where the formed pillars, left to maintain stability, have a higher quality than the coal that is left in the unmined reserves. Where the reserves are less than 70m deep and continuous over several kilometers, opencast mining is being successfully applied. After several years of investigation, Anglo Coal has identified blocks of coal that warrant investigation with regard to pillar extraction by underground methods The proposed method is pillar extraction using Mobile Roof Supports (MRS) It is proposed to mine three panels at a depth of 120m, by keeping the panels narrow and sub-critical. The sub-critical layout does not allow caving to surface and more stress is thrown onto the barrier pillar rather than the face pillars. The sub-critical span is anticipated to be 100m. The paper describes the full geotechnical investigation, including numerical modelling, instrumentation and drawing on the local South African experience of shortwall mining. The project will be unique in that pillars were not designed for pillar extraction and have low factors of safety (l.4 - 1.8) and width to height ratios of less than 4. The mining height will be approximately 4-4 5m, and this represents "new" operating heights for Mining Roof Supports. The required equipment was ordered in late 2002 and pillar extraction is anticipated to begin in June 2003.

Jan 1, 2003

By Gift Makusha

Pre-feasibility work at Goedehoop Colliery indicated that stooping of the undersized pillars could be undertaken safely and economically. In light of the findings a decision was taken in may 2003 to undertake the project in the 600 area where three panels (628, 630 and 632) were identified for pilot test sites. The findings of the pre-feasibility studies were presented in a paper to the 22nd International Conference on Ground Control in Mining held at Morgantown in 2003 (1). This paper is a progress report for the project 12 months down the line. Work commenced to prepare the sites for mining including, acquisition of equipment, equipping the panels, selecting and training people to undertake the project. Three monitoring sites were set up distributed evenly along panel 628. Each site comprised of a surface extensometer station in the overburden strata adjacent to a pillar underground containing hard inclusion vibrating wire extensometer cells. This combination would be used to record pillar loading ahead of stooping as well as the depth of caving and strata deformation in the goal zone behind the stooping face. In July 2003, support work began to secure the roof and rib sides. The support was required to be at least three-pillar center distances ahead of the mining front to ensure that the effective stooping zone is secured at all times. The NEVID method of pillar extraction developed at Sasol and described in detail by Ismet and Moolman (2) in a Coaltech 20-20 report was adopted for the pilot project. As part of training the selected stooping team was send for a week to Sasol's Bosmanskrans Colliery to familiarize with the NEVID method of stooping. Further training sessions were carried out on site especially on the use of Mobile Roof supports. The first cut was taken on 20 August 2003 by implementing a form of chequerbord mining taking every second row of pillars. Three rows were mined this way which period was considered training to get workers familiar with the new equipment and mining method. On the fourth row the full design span equivalent to mining 4 pillars in a row was implemented taking out all the pillars in successive rows. Production figures gradually increased from 300 to more than 1,000 tons run of mine coal per shift. Panel 628 was mined out at the end of December 2003 and the second of three panels (630) is being mined. Substantial data from the monitoring set up has been recorded since the start of the project. Monitoring will continue to the end of the pilot project and the data will be analysed and fed back into the design tools to improve the design in future undertakings. The pilot project has been a success so far and other old workings are being evaluated for stooping.

Jan 1, 2004

By F. W. Crossland

Losses of metal are often traced to incorrect pH/ORP signals in flotation, leaching, extraction, electrolysis, and precipitation processes, aggravated by pressure changes. IC Controls, a Canadian mining sensor manufacturer, developed a new superior pH/ORP sensor that stops metal losses, reduces environmental footprint and contributes to sustainability. The cause of incorrect pH/ORP signal is rooted in the reference. Reference junctions are designed to allow diffusion of reference chloride ions into the process but also allow process ions to diffuse into the reference. This development is important to mines and hydrometallurgists where sulphide, cyanide, ammonia and other poisoning ions are present in the process. These ions react with reference electrolyte components causing the signal to change, drifting from the correct process value. With fluctuating process pressure, ion in migration dilutes the electrolyte producing similar signal drifts. If process ion in-diffusion could be stopped, the pH/ORP signal would be accurate. IC Controls new pH/ORP sensor stops process ion in-diffusion, and remains accurate over long periods. New processes using higher pressure and fluctuating pressurized reactors will greatly benefit from stable pH readings. Similar to IC Controls' proven model 642 Mining pH sensor, our new model 647 contributes to sustainability through reducing disposal costs from waste reagents, lost metal and fewer used sensors.

Jan 1, 2014

By Miquel Lamadrid, Changshow Sun, Chris Johnson

To reduce blasting overbreak and improve stope stability, several new blast designs were proposed for current and future stopes. Based on the analysis of the powder factor, and the extent of damage zone, the appropriate new blast design was selected. Excellent results were achieved from the new blast design. Comparing the new blast design with the old one, the largest of the overbreaks decreased more tan two times and average overbreak reduced more than two times. The new blast design is currently applied in all mining zones in Leeville underground mine.

Jan 1, 2008