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By Peter W. Scott

The Caribbean islands, with their very diverse geology, are a source of several industrial minerals both for their own domestic consumption and for export. The geology of the Greater Antilles, which comprises Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica has a Mesozoic or pre-Mesozoic basement overlain by sediments and volcanics, the latter being dominantly island arc in character. Later granitoid intrusions were emplaced. Obduction of ophiolites also occurred variously from the mid- Cretaceous to the Palaeogene. Thick accumulations of limestones surround the older strata, along with Neogene and younger sediments. The Lesser Antilles islands form an arcuate chain, mainly of volcanic rocks of calc-alkali or sub-alkaline affinity with some younger limestones and siliciclastic sediments. Trinidad and Tobago have closer similarities with the South American continent in their geology. Tobago has a metamorphic complex, juxtaposed with a volcanic-plutonic complex, and limestones. Trinidad has very thick Cretaceous to Recent exposed sedimentary sequence. The current exploitation of industrial minerals in the Caribbean is dominated by construction raw materials (mainly sand and gravel, limestone, and cement), although there is extraction of gypsum, silica sand, marble, clay (almost entirely for construction use), pumice, and natural asphalt. Salt is obtained from solar evaporation of seawater. Limestone of high purity and high brightness, gypsum, pumice, and high-density igneous rock have potential for further development of their markets, particularly ex- ports. Potential new and undeveloped industrial-mineral resources include residual and sedimentary kaolin, bentonite, zeolites, magnesite, and talc. Cuba could be a source for many industrial minerals in the future.

Jan 1, 1999

By M. F. Goudge

Introduction It is only fitting on this occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the incorporation of the Institute that we should indulge in a bit of retrospection and review the progress that has been made within this period in the various branches of the mining industry- progress that is so closely associated with the members of this Institute. Such a moment of retrospection will enable us better to appreciate the present status of the industry and to perceive more clearly the trends that should guide us in making sound plans for the future. The past half century has been a period of amazing industrial progress in Canada. In this period, the economy of our country has changed from one based chiefly on agriculture and the export of raw materials, to an economy based largely on a well integrated manufacturing industry. In all' o( these major developments, industrial minerals have played an important part and will play an increasingly, important part in the future. By ?industrial minerals? we mean the various non-metallic minerals (exclusive of fuels) as well as the rocks, sands, and clays used for industrial purposes. They are now used so widely and in such large quantities that modern industry could not function without them, and their continued availability at low cost is vital to the industrial future of Canada. The key position occupied by industrial minerals in modern Canadian industry was well illustrated two years ago when a strike occurred in the only Canadian plant producing soda-ash and calcium chloride at a time when those materials were already in short supply and unavailable from other sources. Within a short time of the shutdown of this plant, in which the two principal raw materials are limestone and salt, the great aluminium reduction plants on the Saguenay river were forced to curtail operations because of the lack of soda-ash, essential to the process of extracting aluminium from its ore. Automobile production, already harassed by a shortage of steel, was further hampered when glass for windshields and windows could not be supplied because the glass industry was slowed down almost to a standstill for want of soda-ash. Soap became almost unobtainable both to the housewife and to industrial users, because soda-ash is required in its manufacture. As a consequence of the soap shortage, the production o synthetic rubber at Sarnia was threatened because soap in large quantities is essential to the polymerization process. Motorists on gravelled highways all over Eastern Canada drove through clouds of dust because calcium chloride, used for dust laying, was not to be had. There were other cases of dislocation of industry related to the shutdown of this particular plant, but the above illustrates the wide ramifications of industrial minerals in modern industry. However, it is extremely doubtful if many Canadian citizens realized that these apparently unrelated happenings were connected in any way with limestone and salt.

Jan 1, 1948

By W. E. Newton

THE following notes are offered primarily to show that industrial minerals or their products have a much more important place in the metallurgical industry than is perhaps generally realized, and with the hope also that some statement by the metallurgical consumer of the relative merits of various materials for particular requirements or services will l;>e of value to the industrial mineral producer. These notes are not in any way presented as complete. Also, some of the statements made may be debatable. The grouping adopted is as follows: (1) Refractories; (2) Fluxes; (3) Construction materials; and ( 4) Miscellaneous applications. Fuels are not dealt with in the present paper. REFRACTORIES GENERAL: Refractories are materials which will withstand high temperatures with-out melting or becoming markedly soft or pasty. While their primary function is to withstand heat, they are usually called upon to resist one or more of the following destructive influences: abrasion, pressure, corrosion by slags or fluxes, and rapid changes in temperature. Refractory materials may be conveniently divided into three classes: (1) Acid refractories-consisting of silica, or containing silica as their chief constituent. They combine more or less readily with metallic oxides, forming silicates, and are hence termed 'acid'. The most important of these are quartz, quartzite, siliceous sand, tripoli, Dinas rock, and ganister. Most fire-clays, although generally considered neutral sub-stances, contain relatively small amounts of free silica and are, to that extent, acid. (2) Neutral refractories-the term is merely relative in most cases, since, at high temperature, many of the refractories that are classed as neutral will react chemically with a strong base, functioning as a weak acid; or, conversely, with a strong acid, functioning as a weak base. Chrome and graphite are the most nearly neutral of all the commonly used refractory materials.

Jan 1, 1936

By Richard M. Levine

Now that the former Soviet Union has divided into 15 countries, it is necessary to analyze separately the industrial mineral position of each of these countries. Industrial mineral data The former USSR was one of the world's largest producers of industrial minerals and had some of the world's largest reserves. Production and reserve figures, however, must be qualified. Even when these figures were reported by the Soviets, it was not clear that the production figures were for products that would be equally marketable in a competitive market economy. The reserve figures are based on the Soviet system of reserve classification, which is not directly equatable with the US Geological Survey and US Bureau of Mines classifications of economic reserves in market economy countries. The Soviets reserve classification system, in terms of which reserve figures will be given, is based on the reliability of the quantity of the material in place. The Soviet system assigns each occurrence to one of seven categories A, B, C1 and C2 are considered reserves; P1, P2, and P3 are considered resources. Mining in the former Soviet Union was authorized on the basis of the reserves in place in categories A, B and C, which had to be in prescribed ratios. However, the categories A, B and C do not necessarily correspond to Western concepts of material economically exploitable under present market prices with existing technologies.

Jan 1, 1992

As 1970 develops and industrial minerals stand at a crucial point in their progress, research and development programs appear to be the key needed to open up new uses for each mineral's future growth. Radically new processes are needed for making a host of new synthetic products from mineral raw materials which will more nearly meet the demanding specifications required for high performance in space, nuclear and defense applications. Consumer applications for high temperature environments will be needed and are important for continuing the nations economic mineral position. In addition, an acute materials problem limits the effectiveness of some of the newer concepts for controlling ail pollution. What is needed then, according to a report printed by the National Academy of Sciences, is the carefully planned development of a limited number of major centers at universities to provide for both basic research and training of personnel; the nurturing of interdisciplinary mechanisms for research and problem solving within these centers; the achieving of a better balance between physics and chemistry within research, emphasizing the chemical aspects of the material sciences; and the enhancement of a broader professional identity by unifying the various disciplines involved into a possible federation of existing societies which have an interest in the problems. [EE] presents its 1969 annual industrial minerals review, where individual authors evaluate the status of each industrial mineral and recount the major developments which occurred during the year.

Jan 1, 1970

By G. J. Govett

THE RESERVES of industrial minerals of the Western Plains are probably several times more valunable than all the known deposits of metallic minerals of the Canadian Shield, though sharing little of the latter's popular appeal. Because of comparatively low value per unit weight or volume, an adequate and accessible supply of industrial minerals is essential for the full development of any territory; assessment of the value of deposits should consider fully the proximity to cheap transportation, and existing and potential markets. Production statistics of industrial minerals are probably a more reliable guide to economic development than, for example, those of petroleum, and the relative importance of industrial minerals increases with growth of the population. The development of a high-volume natural deposit such as petroleum naturally favours an increase in population, and thus industrial minerals form an integral part of an expanding industrial economy. This situation is clearly demonstrated by the relationsl1ips of industrial minerals production, petroleum production, and population growth, in Alberta (Figure 1).

Jan 1, 1959

By Ken A. Phillips

Like the Arizona jeans commercial says: Arizona's not just a state, its a state of mines. Nearly 300 mines operate in Arizona making it the largest nonfuel mining state in the nation. Although copper is king in Arizona's mineral complex, nonmetallic minerals play important roles both regionally and nationally. Throughout Arizona's mineral resource development history industrial minerals have dominated over the metals for most, but not recent years. The State's metal mining industry which makes Arizona the number one mining state in the United States is a relatively young phenomenon. Arizona was an important industrial mineral producer long before her metal mining industry got started. Salt, phosphates, silicates, and oxides as food additives, tanning chemicals, gemstones, components of aboriginal ordnance, pigments, and construction materials are among the minerals produced long before copper, gold, silver, and the other metals became important. Around 92 % of Arizona's mineral industry is made up of nonfuel minerals, 86 % of that is accounted for by copper. Another 4 % is taken up by copper byproducts of molybdenum, silver, and gold. The remaining 10% of the production is occupied by non-fuel, non-metallic minerals. Arizona's 1994 industrial mineral production of nearly $380 million ranks us among the top 25 in the nation and higher than the total mineral production of at least 15 states.

Jan 1, 1996

By J. W. McCammon

WHEN times are booming and metal prices are high, most mining men pay little attention to the industrial mineral industry. However, when metal prices drop and mines close down, many mining eyes begin to scan the less glamorous non-metallic field. For some this proves a temporary diversion, but others find this branch of mining, with its generally more stable conditions, to their liking and enter it permanently. The resulting gradual influx of trained mining men into the industrial mineral industry ?has been one of several factors responsible for the rise in production of non-metallic materials in our Province. Another and ?perhaps the most important factor influencing the production of industrial minerals has been the growth in the population of British Columbia. Because most industrial minerals .are low priced and either heavy or bulky commodities they are normally sold on relatively local markets. Thus the extent of the development of the industrial mineral industry of a region is largely governed by the size of the population and the level of industrialization of that region. This point is well shown by com-paring population and industrial mineral production statistics for 1936, 1946, and 1956 (see Figure 1)9. Note that not only has the overall production rate grown with the population increase, but that the per capita production has risen greatly.

Jan 1, 1958

By L. H. Cole

FOR many years Industrial Minerals, or as they were formerly called, 'the Non-Metallic Minerals', compared with the metallics, were considered of only minor importance and as such were given scant attention in the technical press as well as in the public press. Those days are, however, happily passing, and thanks, to an appreciable extent, to the constant endeavour of the Industrial Minerals Section of this Institute, established in the fall of 1932 industrial minerals are now assuming the importance to which they are entitled. The term 'Industrial Minerals', when first adopted in this sense by the Institute, was thought to be original in its application, but it is interesting to note that it had been used many years previously by the Queensland Geological Survey in the following publication: SALT Article 1 in Industrial Minerals by B. DUNSTAN, Chief Government Geologist (Publication No. 268, in Part) Queensland Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Brisbane 1920 In Queensland, however, the term embraced some of the metals as well as the non-metallic minerals proper. The lead furnished by Canada in this matter bore rapid fruit, and already the term 'Industrial Minerals' is widely used, not only throughout Canada but in the United States as well.

Jan 1, 1939

By Z. Y. Hu

This paper reviews the past and presents the present state of industrial minerals in China. The resources, reserve and production of major non-metallic minerals are given. The mining and milling operations are reviewed. The future development and plans of Chinese non-metallic minerals industry are summarized.

Jan 1, 1990

By A. L. Hornbaker

Colorado has recorded more than 100 years of industrial mineral production. Much of the state's history, culture, and economy is based in mining, but the industrial minerals and construction materials comprising the nonmetallics sector of the industry very often are overlooked or overshadowed by mineral fuels and the metals. Indeed, many of these materials find use in seemingly unimportant industrial applications essential to our economy and life style and yet are not so recognized by the consumer. Unlike many other mineral resources, the numerous industrial minerals occur in many different and often exotic geologic environments, some of which are characteristic only of the western states. In Colorado only a few of these minerals have continued production through the years; many saw only "boom" periods or other critical times of need, such as the world wars. The changing needs and demands of our society in the 1980s will stimulate yet another era of intensive activity in our industrial minerals storehouse. Researchers are finding new uses and applications for these materials in dealing with the energy crisis and fuel shortages, the need to develop domestic mineral reserves of all kinds, and the goals of reuse and recycling. Some of Colorado's little-used and unused industrial minerals hold extraordinary promise in solving some of these problems on the regional and national levels. In this paper we will look at the history of development of Colorado's more prominent nonmetallics and especially at current research on and future potential of several other commodities among which Colorado contains the largest known reserves.

Jan 1, 1980

By A. L. Hornbaker, S. D. Schwochow

Industrial minerals are becoming increasingly important in Colorado's mining industry, not only in production value but also in the variety available and in their potential development for both conventional and new uses. Fluorspar, building stone, fire clay, and pegmatite minerals have been historically important but are not now extensively mined. Aggregates (sand, gravel, and crushed stone), cement materials, metallurgical limestone, and common clays currently are the highest valued commodities. Those offering the greatest future potential include diamonds, nahcolite and dawsonite associated with oil shale, alunite, potash, zeolites, and rare earths.

Jan 1, 1982

By Ashraf A. M. A. Wali

Many of the economic resources of Egypt have been recognized and exploited for thousands of years (e.g. gold and copper). Most of these minerals, particularly those from hard-rock sited deposits, are found in complex form along with other components while those present in sedimentary sequences are largely in simple compounds or as native elements. Recognition of their characteristic settings (structure, basin development, environment of formation etc.) is the main clue in predicting and locating their presence. The main economic minerals exploited in Egypt today come from sedimentary sequences and include sodium and potassium chlorides, gypsum, sulfur, and sedimentary iron ores. Large amounts of low grade sedimentary phosphates are known but are not of economic value at today's prices. Recent intensive investigation in the north-eastern Sinai (EI Arish) and along the southern coasts of the Gulf of Suez has revealed new and extensive sulfur and chloride deposits, and considerable oil and gas are now being exploited from closely related sediments. Tin is the only mineral that is produced from hard-rock sources, and gold and copper deposits are present but not of high enough grade to be economically viable. However, a significant part of Egypt has not yet been studied in enough detail to close the door on future discoveries. Another point of considerable geological interest is the presence of diverse, modern evaporitic settings, from which we may draw the analogs for many of the older gypsum, anhydrite, chloride and sulfur de-posits. In fact these analogs are so well displayed that both the Sinai and Gulf of Suez-Red Sea evaporites (Middle and Upper Miocene) can be readily compared with these modern deposits.

Jan 1, 1990

By Thomas G. Murdock

ETHIOPIA, the first country to be liberated from Axis domination, has recovered remarkably from the ravages of occupation and war. Mineral production has contributed significantly towards this recovery, as it has provided a means of obtaining foreign exchange and has given employment to hundreds of workmen whose maintenance otherwise would have presented a problem. Although primarily an agricultural country, never with a large mineral production, Ethiopia has within its borders a variety of minerals, both precious metals and nonmetallics. Some of these are important to the country as a national asset and others contribute greatly to local economy and can be expected to do so even to a greater extent in the future1 (Fig I). PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY The Empire of Ethiopia is essentially a mountainous and volcanic country, in northeast Africa, situated principally between latitude 4° and I5°N and longitude 34° and 44°E. It is bounded on the north by Eritrea, on the northeast by French Somaliland, on the southeast by Italian Somaliland, on the south by Kenya Colony, and on the west by Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. These European possessions thus completely surround the country. Its access to the Red Sea is through Eritrea; to the Gulf of Aden, through French or British Somaliland; and, to the Indian Ocean, via Italian Somaliland. These routes range in length from 40 to 250 miles. Ethiopia has an area of approximately 350,000 square miles, with a width from north to south of 625 miles, and a maximum length from east to west, along latitude 8°N, of about 875 miles. Physiographically the country is characterized by two very extensive sub-tabular plateaus: the Ethiopian Plateau to the northwest and the Somaliland Plateau to the southeast, separated by a long tectonic graben-the Rift Valley of the Galla Lakes and Danakil. The Ethiopian Plateau, deeply cut and notched by the drainage, slopes in a general northwest direction toward the Sudanese Plains and the valley of the Nile; the Somaliland Plateau slopes to the southeast, toward the Indian Ocean. The valley of the Galla Lakes and its extension to the northeast-the Awash River Valley, separates the plateaus, from Lake Rudolph to Danakil. This depression which constitutes a continuation or ramification of the Great Rift Valley of Central Africa joins in turn the trough of the Gulf of Aden and the Danakil-Eritrean Rift, continuations of the Red Sea and the Jordan Valley. The general basement of Ethiopia is made up of very old rocks, usually considered as Archaen.2 These rocks are represented by the metamorphic crystallines, such as gneisses, different kinds of schists, included lenses of crystalline limestone, and massive intrusives such as granites, diorites, and syenites, all cut by

Jan 1, 1947

By Dennis P. Bryan

Nevada is especially well endowed with industrial minerals, both in the number of ore deposits and the diversity of commodities. More than 600 significant industrial mineral deposits, containing 22 principal commodities, are present, in the State. The materials produced in Nevada in 1978 had a value of approximately 113 million dollars, and additional processing of some of them (e.g. gypsum into wallboard, limestone and clay into cement) added considerable more value. Table 1 shows the value of Nevada's industrial mineral production in 1978. Nevada currently supplies 85 percent of the country's barite producing 1.6 million tonnes (1.8 million short tons) valued at 30 million dollars in 1978. Nevada is second in diatomite production and contributes one-third of total lithium produced. Other industrial minerals being produced include clays, fluorspar, gypsum, lightweight aggregates, limestone and dolomite, magnesite and brucite, perlite, salt, sand and gravel, and silica. In general, Nevada produces high-value industrial minerals which are not consumed within the State, but rather, are shipped out of State. In contrast, most more populous states produce larger tonnages of lower value industrial minerals which are consumed chiefly within that state.

Jan 1, 1980

By B. N. Thompson

The main industrial minerals produced are non-metallic - clay, dolomite, limestone, pumice, salt, serpentine, and silica sand. The other minerals, some with minor production, include diatomite, feldspar, magnesite, sulphur, asbestos, and perlite. Energy and metallic minerals and aggregate are excluded from this account. These industrial minerals occur in a wide range of rock types and geological ages. For example clays are known from the weathering products of Cretaceous rhyolite and leaching of Eocene coal measures; from Quaternary weathering of contemporary loess and shallow marine sediments, and of greywacke of Triassic-Jurassic age; and from the hydrothermal alteration of Late Cenozoic acidic volcanic rocks.

Jan 1, 1982

By B. N. Thompson

Main industrial minerals produced in New Zealand are nonmetallic - clay, dolomite, limestone, pumice, salt, serpentine, and silica sand. Other minerals, some with minor production, include diatomite, feldspar, magnesite, sulfur, asbestos, and perlite. Energy and metallic minerals and aggregate are excluded from this account. These industrial minerals occur in a wide range of rock types and geological ages. For example, clays are known from the weathering products of Cretaceous rhyolite and leaching of Eocene coal measures; from Quaternary weathering of contemporary loess and shallow marine sediments, and of greywacke of Triassic-Jurassic age; and from the hydrothermal alteration of late Cenozoic acidic volcanic rocks.

Jan 1, 1984

By Jasper L. Stuckey

Geological investigation and research have contributed greatly in making industrial minerals the basis of an important industry in the state. North Carolina contains a wide variety of industrial minerals and rock. Mica, feldspar, kaolin, halloysite, talc, pyrophyllite, sillimanite, and spodumene are used to illustrate the progress being made.

Jan 12, 1951

By Jasper L. Stuckey

GEOGRAPHICALLY, North Carolina consists of three divisions, the coastal plain on the east, the piedmont plateau in the center, and the Appalachian mountain region on the west. Geologically, the State may be divided into two main divisions, an eastern or coastal plain region, and a western or piedmont plateau and mountain region. The eastern region is underlain with unconsolidated sands, clays, marls, and shell limestones varying in age from Cretaceous to Recent. The western region is, in general, underlain with gneisses, schists, slates, sheared volcanics, and igneous intrusives of Pre-Cambrian age. In the mountain and upper piedmont portion of the western region are several areas of irregularly metamorphosed sediments of early Paleozoic age. Throughout the piedmont plateau and a part of the mountain portion of the western region, important areas are underlain with igneous intrusives of late Carboniferous age. Along the eastern edge of the piedmont plateau are two narrow belts, trending northeast-southwest, underlain with sediments of upper Triassic age. Although North Carolina contains a

Jan 1, 1947

By Lynn I. Kelley

Industrial-mineral production contributes on the order of CDN$1.5 billion per year to the economy of Saskatchewan, Canada. Potash is the primary industrial mineral produced in the province, followed by aggregate, sodium sulphate, salt, potassium sulphate, peat, clays, silica sand, calcium-chloride brine, and "clinker." Potentially economic deposits of kaolin, diamond, and building stone are under evaluation. All of the major deposits of commodities discussed here are located south of lat 56°30'N. Most of the locations are presented on Figure 1 POTASH Saskatchewan supplies approximately 30% of the world's demand for potash. Eight conventional underground mines and two solution mines produced an all-time high of more than 13 million metric tonnes of potash (KC1) (8 million tonnes K2O equivalent) in 1997, valued at over CDN$1.4 billion. All of the mines exploit the middle Devonian Prairie Evaporite. The four potash-bearing members of the Prairie Evaporite underlie much of southern Saskatchewan and extend southward into North Dakota and Montana and east- ward into Manitoba (Fig. 2). Halite and anhydrite separate the potassic members. The evaporite beds locally are interrupted by solution structures (anomalous ground). Some of the structures may be related to deep-seated tectonic features.

Jan 1, 1999