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At Namdeb, submerged beaches are earmarked for sampling and future mining and various sampling configurations are tested for optimality through the use of spatial simulations. For the creation of these virtual orebodies, basic statistics and variograms are needed, but in this specific instance no data exists from which the necessary parameters can be determined. The best that can be done is to use proxy data from onshore beaches, with adaptations where needed. The reworking of raised beaches during periods of rising and falling sea levels in some cases destroyed the internal beach structures, and it is very difficult to determine the variograms. A method is proposed whereby simulated annealing is used to adjust the sample locations to align the data pertaining to beach crests or cliff lines, thus improving the variogram structure along the shoreline in the direction of the highest geological continuity.

Jan 1, 2014

By W. Robert, J. Wirth, G. Grasselli

ABSTRACT: Strength, deformability and fluid flow properties of rock joints are to a great extent controlled by the surface roughness. The hydraulic conductivity of a rock fracture depends on the aperture distribution, the surface roughness and the contact area, each of which depend on the stresses that act on the fracture plane. However, despite much recent work, a complete understanding of the relationship between void space geometry, contact areas, applied stress, and hydraulic conductivity has yet to be achieved. Moreover, although in situ rock joints are subjected to both normal and shear loading, few studies have been conducted to investigate the effect of shear displacements on fluid flow through a single rock fracture, and which have addressed the issue of flow anisotropy induced by shearing. Experimental flow tests show that with increasing shear displacement, the fracture becomes heterogeneous and anisotropic, and becomes more permeable in the direction parallel to the displacement (Yeo et al., 1998). On the other hand, dry shear tests show that the surface fails in areas facing the shear direction (Grasselli and Egger, 2003). Moreover, the experimental results confirm that the shear strength of rock joints is direction-dependent. In this paper, a three-dimensional morphological description of several a natural fractures that have undergone shear displacement were generated using the Automated Topographic System at the University of Basel. The data analysis method of Grasselli (Grasselli et al., 2002a) is used to determine the surface parameters that are known to control the shear strength. Simulations of fluid flow through this fracture, in various directions relative to the direction of shear, are conducted using an FEM flow simulator. The results constitute the most detailed analysis yet undertaken of the relationship between shear displacement, shear strength, and fracture transmissivity. RESUME: La rugosité des joints en roche joue un rôle primaire sur la réponse hydromécanique du massif fracturé. En effet, la conductivité hydraulique des discontinuités en roche est influencée par la rugosité, et par la distribution des ouvertures et des zones de contact, dont chacun dépend de l’effort normal et du cisaillement qui agissent sur la surface du joint. Les essais d'écoulement en laboratoire montrent que si cisaillée, la fracture devient anisotrope, et plus perméable dans la direction parallèle au déplacement (Yeo et al., 1998). D'autre part, les essais de cisaillement indiquent que seules les zones de la surface qui font face à la direction de cisaillement sont impliquées dans le cisaillement (Grasselli et Egger, 2003). D'ailleurs, les résultats expérimentaux confirment que la résistance au cisaillement des joints de roche est dépendante de la direction. Dans cet article, plusieurs fractures en roche ont été analysées en utilisant un système de mesure topographique à l'Université de Bâle. La méthode d'analyse de données proposée par Grasselli (Grasselli et al., 2002a) a été employée pour calculer les paramètres de la surface qui déterminent la résistance au cisaillement. Plusieurs simulations du coulage, dans diverses directions relativement à la direction du cisaillement, ont été faites à l’aide d’un programme de calcul à éléments finis. Les résultats constituent une des analyses les plus détaillé sur le rapport entre le déplacement pendant le cisaillement, la résistance au cisaillement, et la transmissivité spécifique de la fracture. ZUSAMMENFASSUMG: Die Festigkeit, Verformbarkeit und Hydromechanik von geklüftetem Fels wird hauptsächlich von der Oberflächenrauhigkeit der Bruchflächen bestimmt. Die hydraulische Leitfähigkeit einer Kluft hängt von der Verteilung der Rissbreiten, der Oberflächenrauhigkeit und den Kontaktflächen ab, die ihrerseits von dem auf die Bruchfläche wirkenden Druck beeinflusst werden. Obgleich in letzter Zeit viel in dieser Richtung geforscht wurde, kann der Zusammenhang zwischen Porenraumgeometrie, Kontaktflächen, wirkendem Druck und hydraulischer Leitfähigkeit noch nicht vollständig erklärt werden. Obwohl Klüfte in situ sowohl Normal- als auch Schubspannungen ausgesetzt sind, wurde der Einfluss von Scherverschiebungen auf den Kluftwasserfluss und die daraus resultierende Fliessanisotropie in einer einzelnen Kluft bisher kaum untersucht. Experimentelle Untersuchungen des Durchflusses zeigen, dass die Kluft für größer werdende Scherverschiebungen heterogen und anisotrop wird wobei die Permeabilität parallel zur Verschiebungsrichtung ansteigt (Yeo et al., 1998). Andererseits zeigen trockene Scherversuche, dass die Oberfläche an Stellen versagt, die gegen die Verschiebungsrichtung anstehen (Grasselli und Egger, 2003). Des weiteren bestätigen die experimentellen Ergebnisse eine Richtungsabhängigkeit der Kluftscherfestigkeit. In diesem Artikel wird eine dreidimensionale morphologische Beschreibung mehrerer natürlicher, durch Scherspannungen verschobener Klüfte vorgestellt, die vom Automated Topographic System der Universität von Basel erstellt wurde. Das von Grasselli (Grasselli et al., 2002a) entwickelte Datenanalyseverfahren wird zur Feststellung der die Scherfestigkeit bestimmenden Oberflächenparameter herangezogen. Mittels einer FEM-Simulation wird der Durchfluss durch eine solche Kluft in verschiedenen Richtungen simuliert. Die Ergebnisse stellen die bisher ausführlichste Analyse des Zusammenhangs zwischen Scherverschiebung, Scherfestigkeit und Durchlässigkeit (Transmissivität) einer Kluft dar.

Jan 1, 2003

By C. Steve

ABSTRACT: In this paper, the stability evaluation and bifurcation criteria are presented for the Jinping arch dam structure. The bifurcation models in failure status of the arch dam are derived from the uniqueness of the controlling equation of dam behaviours, and the relative phenomena between positive definition of dam structural tangent stiffness and bifurcation are given in the paper. Then the structural collapse criteria for arch dam are discussed based on the energy mode. A stability criterion of dam based on the connection of yield zones is proposed according to the implementation of elasto-plastic FEM (finite element method) numerical analysis. In accordance with this judging method, nonlinear FEM analysis is used for Jinping arch dam. The failure process of the Jinping dam was simulated and yield zones were found under the overloading condition. Keywords: Stability evaluation, bifurcation, failure process, Jinping arch dam ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: In der Verliegenden Arbeit wird ein integrater geomechanisch Modellversuch fuer Jinping Bogenstaumauer Vorgesstellt. Die Bogenstaumauer liegt aut der komplizerten felsformationen. Der Zerstoerungsmechanismus, die Stabilitaetsfaktoren und die Interaktion zwischen der Bogenstaumauer und den Seiltichen. In der Vorliegenden Arbeit wird eine dreidimensionale finite element analyse fuer die seitlichen. Gestein sauflager mittels dem Bruchmodell Vorgestellt, da fuer Jiniping Bogenstaumauer angewandet wird. Ein Bruch mechanismus model einschliesslich der statistischen parameter der Gesteinfes tigkeit wird entauckeit. RÉSUMÉ: Das ce documènt a été faite une analyse d’elemt limité de trois dimensions dn fondement de construction de roche faisant appel au modéle de l’endommagemnet à fracture, analyse appliquée an fondement du bar ragevoute de Jinping. Ce documènt décrit le test de modéle géomecanique intégral pour le barrage-voûte de Jinping L’ampleur du modéle en question constitute l’une de plus importantes en China. Ils correspondent par faitement anx calculs des résultats.

Jan 1, 2003

By E. Dzingayi

Keywords: Pyrometallurgy, furnace, Bindura, nickel The smelter at Bindura Nickel Corporation processes concentrates from its own mines and other external sources. Concentrates are dried, smelted, and converted to a desulphurised matte (leach alloy) for further processing at the refinery. The smelter comprises a drying plant, submerged arc electric furnace, electrostatic precipitator, and three Peirce-Smith type converters capable of treating 150 000 tonnes of concentrates per year. Concentrates are dried in a rotary coal-fired kiln, blended with fluxes, and smelted in a six-in-line submerged-arc 15MW electric furnace. Slag is tapped and granulated for disposal, and matte is tapped at regular intervals for blowing in Peirce-Smith converters. The paper details the 37-year history of the smelter, including furnace rebuilds and operating parameters as they have evolved in response to changing feed compositions. Special challenges, particularly relating to the treatment of high talc concentrates, are also described.

Jan 1, 2006

The paper deals with the importance of design and of codes of practice in ensuring safe working conditions in mines. The design principles involved in the design process are dealt with, and the importance of a logical design process is emphasized. The links between the requirements for developing a code of practice, embodied in the existing guidelines for the preparation of such a code, and the design principles and process are considered in some detail. Finally, suggestions are included, which may provide improvements to the code and hence, ultimately, lead to further improvement in safe working conditions.

Jan 1, 2004

By M. Nyoka

Consideration of the economic, environmental, and social impacts associated with the life-cycle of a technology is of increasing importance for decision-making in industry. It has been suggested that economic assessment of technology deployment projects requires the translation of associated environmental effects into monetary values. This paper introduces an approach for identifying and evaluating environmental damage in monetary terms. The approach groups the environmental impacts associated with a technology life-cycle system into four main criteria: air, water, land, and mined abiotic resources. The valuation of the impacts on the resources consists of an economic cost benefit analysis (CBA) procedure that comprises four steps: the compiling of an impact inventory, a monetary valuation of the inventory, discounting, and a risk/uncertainty analysis. The monetary valuation step for impacts on air resources is primarily based on published externality costs for Europe and the United States, which are adopted and converted to reflect the South African context. Local opportunity costs are utilized for the other resource criteria. The damage costs are transformed into South African Rand at 2005 prices. The paper demonstrates how the approach may be applied in the assessment of projects in the metallurgical industry. Shortcomings in the approach are identified. For example, not all of the aspects that are considered necessary to assess environmental performances comprehensively can be valued in monetary terms. Also, certain values, specifically those pertaining to opportunity costs, need to be determined on a case-by-case basis. Furthermore, the uncertainties associated with the indicators obtained may strongly influence the usability of the results of an environmental performance assessment, e.g. future damage costs will change with fluctuations in the markets. It is concluded that although such an approach has merit in increasing the understanding of the potential financial implications of a technology?s environmental performance, further research is required to improve the approach described if it is to be used further in the South African metallurgical industry. Damage cost estimates that are specific to South Africa need to be developed to reduce uncertainty, and the combination of both quantitative and qualitative approaches is recommended for comprehensive sustain-ability decision-making.

Jan 1, 2007

By M. D. G. Salamon

It has been noted in recent years that the pillars in some bord-and-pillar workings scale or spall. In due course this process may result in the collapse of the affected panels. This paper presents a methodology for assessing the long-term behaviour of such workings, employing a simple model of pillar deterioration by scaling. It is assumed that scaling causes a gradual reduction in pillar width, hence the safety factor of pillars reduces in time. It is also postulated that the process of scaling will be arrested if the coal rubble around the pillar reaches a critical height. The probability that the pillars will survive for a certain period of time, or indefinitely, can be estimated. This can be accomplished by using the log-normal distribution proposed by Salamon and Munro4todescribe the distribution of the apparent safety factor values at failure. If an estimate of the rate of scaling is known, it is also possible to quantify, using a Monte Carlo technique, the expected life of the pillars. The method also facilitates pillar design by specifying a probability of survival for a given number of years or, alternatively, for an indefinite period. Using the limited pool of available data, analyses show that the proposed model does not appear to be inconsistent with observed behaviour of pillars in the Vaal Basin. The crucial parameter is the rate of scaling. Back calculations from eleven cases suggest that the rate of spalling in the Vaal Basin is about 0.2 m/year. It is noteworthy that two further cases in the same area give significantly higher rates (0.85 m/year). Some underground observations in the Witbank area indicate considerably lower rates in the order of 0.02?0.04 m/year. Further areas for study are recommended. These include a study of old workings to determine the extent and rate of scaling in the various coal fields, an investigation into the possible relationship between scaling and the chemical composition of the coal. In addition, model studies will be required to assess the practical impact of the research findings.

Jan 1, 1998

By S. J. Lötter

Analysis of the major and minor components of raw zircon as well as plasma-dissociated zircon was undertaken using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Microwave-assisted acid extraction as well as flux fusion using lithium tetraborate were investigated as digestion methods. Microwave-assisted acid extraction samples were analysed with matrix-matched standards. The most successful microwave-assisted acid extractions yielded 44.3(1), 49.75(7), 78.3(3) and 90.0(7) per cent recovery for Zr, Hf, Al, and Fe respectively using sulphuric acid. In no instance was acid extraction capable of complete digestion of the sample matrix. A standard addition method was applied to the flux-fusion samples due to the high complexity of the sample matrix. Method validation for the flux fusion procedure was performed using the SARM 62 certified reference material (CRM) with acceptable recovery ranges being based on the 95 per cent confidence intervals of the CRM. Successful analyses were achieved for Zr, Hf, and Ti with apparent content of 66(6), 1.7(1) and 0.15(1) per cent respectively.

Jan 1, 2012

By D. F. Malan, M. Grave, J. A. L. Napier

Previous fundamental research projects have indicated the value of continuous closure measurements in deep tabular excavations for improved support design, hazard assessment and for quantifying the effect of seismicity on stope closure. This paper describes further measurements in a VCR stope to validate some of the earlier findings. Calculation of the closure ratio showed that it is a good measure to identify different ground conditions and possible hazards. This work was supported by numerical modelling results, which showed that the closure ratio is very useful in discriminating the response of different geotechnical environments. Des projets précédents de recherche fondamentale ont démontré la valeur de mesures continues de fermeture dans le cas de profondes excavations tabulaires pour une conception améliorée du soutien, de l’évaluation du danger et pour quantifier l’effet de la séismicité sur l'affaissement du toit d’un chantier d’abattage. Le présent document décrit d’autres mesures dans un chantier d’abattage VCR afin de valider certaines des conclusions précédemment formulées. Le calcul du degré d'affaissement montre qu’il y va de soi d’identifier différentes conditions de sol ainsi que les dangers possibles. Les présents travaux ont été confirmés par des résultats de modélisation numérique, lesquels ont démontré que le taux d'affaissement est très utile quant à discerner la réponse dans des environnements géotechniques différents. Vorherige Forschungsprojekte haben den Wert von kontinuierlichen Setzungsmessungen im tiefen Sudafrikanischen Strebabbau angedeutet, vor allem fur Ausbaudesign und Risikobewertung, als auch fur die quantitative Bestimmungen der seismizitatsabhangigen Setzung. Dieses Referat beschreibt weitere Messungen in einer VCR Grube um fruhere Bestimmungen zu bewerten. Dass errechnete Konvergenzverhaltniss erweiste sich als eine gute Massnahme zur bestimmung von geotechnischen Zonen und moglichen Risiken. Numerische Analyse unterstutzte die vorliegende Arbeit und deutete darauf, dass das Konvergenzverhaltniss sehr brauchbar ist um Verhaltensunterschiede der geotechnischen Zonen zu erproben

Jan 1, 2003

By N. Hanief

This research involves the investigation of phase transformations in the platinum-chromium coated system. Single-layer 0.1 µm platinum coatings were deposited via electron beam deposition on 99.98 percent pure chromium substrates. Specimens were subjected to systematic heat treatment in a vacuum furnace at 900°C for up to 20 hours. Phase formation and the changes in surface morphology were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM).Both CrPt and Cr3Pt phases are formed during heat treatment for different times at 900°C. Significant changes in the morphology of this coated system were detected after heat treatment at 900°C for 20 hours.

Jan 1, 2012

By K. M. Li, Y. D. Zhang

The selection of stripping dragline is a complicated problem. Several factors, such as the deposit buried conditions, the demand of mine production rate, cast blasting result, the mining/stripping operation method and parameters, etc. may comprehensively influence the optimal selection of technical specifications of the dragline. Under these circumstances, the basic thinking and procedures for dragline selection are put forward as follows. •Step 1—Initially estimate the dragline annual stripping rate and stripping bench height according to the annual coal production rate and advancing speed of mining front. Then the feasible alternatives of dragline sizes can be calculated and selected from the existing dragline series. •Step 2—A computer simulation model is developed to simulate the dragline stripping operation, to obtain a series of working face parameters, then to select the best dragline alternative. This step can be interactively iterated until the satisfactory results are obtained. •Step 3— Sensitivity analysis can be done with the systems simulation model by changing the stripping bench parameters, e.g. stripping bench height and cut width, etc. to verify and modify the selection results if necessary. The mathematical model for dragline stripping simulation has been set up. The flowchart of the model is shown. A case study for a large surface coal mine with annual production rate of 16 Mt/a is followed. The dragline bucket capacity and operation radius, stripping bench height and cut width as well as other parameters are comprehensively optimized and selected. Keywords: Open cast, dragline, specification, selection, cast blasting

Jan 1, 2003

By W. J. Schlitt

The Namibian Copper Joint Venture has been formed to undertake development of the Haib copper deposit, one of the largest undeveloped copper resources in Africa. The development programme includes extensive hydrometallurgical testwork that is being managed by Kvaerner Metals (formerly Davy International).Various parts of the programme have been contracted to four third-party laboratories. The testwork involves sample selection and characterization, amenability tests, and a parametric study on the leaching variables. All portions of the programme are described and the results a represented. The ores selected for testing are quartz feldspar porphyries. The amenability tests include ?mapping? studies to assess optimum leach conditions, tests at high oxidation potentials, oxidation with various bacterial strains, and heap leach modelling. The parametric programme includes such variables as ore grade, leach temperature, crush size, pH, and ferric iron content of the lixiviant. Testing was done on both whole ore and concentrate. Results show that bacterial leaching is effective and that ore grade and temperature are key variables. Crush size and pH have less impact on copper extraction. For mid-grade ore, about 0.25 per cent copper, extraction is projected to reach 50 per cent after two years when heap leaching tertiary crushed ore at 60°C and pH 1.5. The heap leach operation would fit well with the proposed roast-leach operation used to treat higher grade ores. The latter could supply the low cost heat and acid needed in the heap leach.

Jan 1, 1999

By C. Musingwini

The South African mining industry continues to be a major source of employment at a time when at least 25 per cent of the working age population is unemployed. At the same time the industry faces a skills shortage in many of the disciplines necessary for its future health. The University of the Witwatersrand, University of Pretoria, University of Johannesburg, and University of South Africa have historically produced mining graduates for the South African mining industry with any shortfall being met by the recruitment of overseas graduates. More recently, the global shortage of engineers and other mining industry professionals has seen a reversal of this trend and a very significant emigration of well-educated and highly skilled personnel. The traditional career path for mining graduates is in production and mine management. However, there is the parallel (and possibly more pressing) need for specialized skills in such fields as ventilation, rock engineering, mine planning, mineral resource evaluation, and mineral asset valuation. Chronic shortages in these essential areas continue to hamper the development of the industry and may well frustrate its ambitions to be safe, healthy, and profitable into the future. The permeability of skills across sectorial boundaries within the mining industry requires that skills shortages in the platinum sector are not looked at in isolation, but within the context of the entire industry. This paper reviews the efforts being made by the universities, at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels, to meet the needs of the South African mining industry in terms of the required numbers and the range of specialized skills.

Jan 1, 2013

By G. H. Lind

Research into the safe and economic extraction of underground coal pillars in the Witbank and Highveld coalfields of South Africa highlighted that future practices will have to consider pertinent risks associated with this least safe of all underground coal mining methods conducted in South Africa. To this end, a computer-based program called A-PEP (Analysis for Pillar Extraction Potential) was developed to assess three aspects of this mining practice, viz. risks associated with the physical attributes, operational risk attributes and economic attributes. This intelligent tool can thus be used when planning to conduct underground pillar extraction to ensure that all pertinent risk elements and legislative requirements are considered to conduct this mining method safely before a submission is made to the Department of Minerals and Energy. Keywords: operational risk management, mine planning, underground coal mining, pillar extraction.

Jan 1, 2003

By H. M. Chikashi

Keywords: Pyrometallurgy, furnace, bath agitation, regression analysis, entrainment This paper presents the results of linear regression analysis of the influence that each component of slag has on the losses of copper in slag-cleaning-furnace slag. Data used for the analysis are actual plant data collected over the past two years of operation. Facts obtained from the study will be helpful for smelter management to control these components in the flash smelting furnace feed and slag, to levels which will enable better control of copper in slag, and smoother operation of the KCM slag-cleaning furnace.

Jan 1, 2011

In constructing a financial model of a project significant effort is expended on capital and operating cost estimation, commodity price forecasts, and choice of discount rates while uncertainty in the primary input, the reserve, is often completely overlooked. The aim of this paper is to highlight the impact of uncertainty in the resource/reserve estimation process on the assessment of the financial performance of a project. Four qualitative processes have an impact on resource/reserve uncertainty. These stages are: 1.Ore definition 2.Geological interpretation 3.Resource estimation 4.Ore reserve estimation and mine planning. Each stage contains a number of tasks that may be considered as key performance activities (KPAs). Optimizing the manner in which these KPAs are completed can remove a great deal of uncertainty and error from the resource/reserve process. Examination of these KPAs within a company can also provide an insight to the quality of the information underlying the project. This will allow the company to identify any shortcomings in the data and to assess the resulting risks (Gilfillan, 1998). A hypothetical financial model based on a gold operation has been used to estimate the potential effect of resource/reserve uncertainty on revenue. Monte Carlo simulation has been employed to simulate a number of hypothetical scenarios: 1.a base case scenario which assumes no major errors or biases, but contains realistic margins for uncertainty that would exist in any project where work is being completed to the limit of best endeavours 2.a poor sampling scenario which assumes poor sampling practice and lack of understanding of sample preparation 3.a poor resource estimation scenario which assumes poor modelling and inappropriate choice of interpolation technique, and 4. a ?typical? scenario which represents a project where the majority of KPAs are not performed as best as they could be. The results show that realistic uncertainty ranges can generate changes in the estimate of potential revenue of plus or minus 30%.Therefore, it is important to allow for errors in these processes in any financial analysis or feasibility study. It is recommended that, when building a financial model, are view of relevant resource/reserve KPAs be carried out and appropriate ranges for uncertainty be applied to provide a range of potential outcomes. These outcomes can then be factored into the detailed cash flow analysis in order to ensure that technical uncertainty is built into financial decisions.

Jan 1, 1999

By R. E. Wilmot

This paper is based on the experiences, over many years, of numerous authors in the South African mining industry and of the hot dip galvanizing process and its application as a corrosion protection system. The paper sets out the extensive development, financial resources and stringent operating requirements of the South African mining industry. After many years of research and operational experiences, hot dip galvanizing and, when necessary, duplex systems, have been found to meet the demanding requirements of this particular industry. The paper sets out the requirements from the standpoint of corrosion criteria and is followed with a case where the corrosion protection properties of hot dip galvanizing are demonstrated. This case history traces the early investigation of the expected corrosive conditions in a new mining operation and concludes with two follow-up visits to the mine in order to examine actual performance of the corrosion protection system after ten years in service.

Jan 1, 2007

The EMEM Awards of the Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) were formally launched on 3 March 2000 by Ms Susan Shabangu, Deputy Minister at the Department?s Mineralia Centre in Pretoria. The launch was attended by invited guests from the mining and aggregate industries ,representatives of the Patron Organisations (see below),non- government and scientific organizations, the media, other government departments involved with mining environmental management and members of staff of the DME both nationally and regionally.

Jan 1, 2000

By J. H. Schubert

Mintek has developed a level-control system, FloatStar, for use in flotation circuits. Instead of controlling levels separately in each unit, the controller monitors levels throughout the circuit. It can thus take account of the global effects of any control actions. A collaborative project between Mintek and Karee Platinum Mine has begun, looking at aspects of flotation control. Karee plant was chosen as the site for this work because of its good existing control infrastructure. As a first stage of the joint project FloatStar was installed. Analysis during installation and running of the FloatStar has illustrated how circuit design and measurement technology can affect process control. Severe interactions have been observed in the levels of adjacent banks. The effect of FloatStar on flotation performance was tested and an improvement in level control was observed. Similarly, a faster settling of the plant after start-ups was observed. Both the improved level control and faster start-ups lead to higher platinum recovery.

Jan 1, 1999

By J. Ekengård, H. Srinath, M. Andersson, P. Jönsson, D. S. Sarma

The present paper deals with mixing between the metal and slag phase during the ladle refining process, including vacuum degassing. Dispersion of metal drops in ladle slags has been studied. The results show a larger quantity of metal droplets in ladle slag during the alloying and stirring phase than during the subsequent vacuum degassing phase. The thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of the interaction between metal drops and the slag matrix have been considered and probable reasons for the observed distribution discussed.

Jan 1, 2004