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By Chester Wells Purington

Situation.—The Camp Bird mine is in Imogene basin† (Fig. 1) at the head-waters of Canon creek, a branch of the Gunnison, in the southern part of Ouray county, Colorado, towards the northern edge of the region known as the San Juan mountains, and about 10 miles W. of the continental divide. It is 8 miles by wagon-road from Ouray, the terminus of a branch of the Rio Grande' Southern railway. The distance from Denver to Ouray is 387 miles by rail. In an air-line, the mine is 190 miles SW. of Denver. The altitude of the town, tunnel and buildings is 11,200 ft., and level No. 2 is 11,500 ft., and No. 1 is 11,670 ft., above sea-level. The lowest point of the lode-ontcrop, which crosses the basin E. and W., has an elevation of 11,850 ft., and that of the highest point, on the divide between Imogene and Tomboy basins, is 13,250 ft. On the eastern slope of the Imogene basin (towards Ironton) the vein is less clearly defined on the surface. Ownership and Extent.—At the time of the writing of this paper, the property is owned by Mr. Thomas I?. Walsh, and operated under the management of Mr. J. W. Benson. It

Jan 1, 1903

By Schneider, W. G.

IT is not my purpose to burden you with many statistics. The charts herewith should be considered merely as indicating the trend. I believe' that is what is really of interest to us. It is difficult, if not impossible to forecast with any assurance future developments, because of possible new mines, competitive materials, curtailment' or increase in the use of the metal in certain markets, and many other factors that have a vital bearing on any industry. Fig. 1 shows United States smeltet output of copper, starting with 1845. It is estimated that in 1928 the smelter output of copper will be about 1,010,000 tons. Between 1895 and 1905 it increased about 200,000 tons, and between 1905 and 1915 about 240,000 tons. Between 1915 and 1925 the increase was about 140,000 tons. This is an average increase over 30 years of about 190,00Q tons per ten-year period. At the present time the indications are that this demand for increased production will continue. As to whether or not we have the supplies or facilities to maintain this increase or a greater one, remains to be seen. Provided it is possible for United States smelters to increase their production, they should be producing at the rate of about 1,210,000 tons or more per year by 1935.

Jan 1, 1928

By Hjalmer Sjögren

AMONG the feldspar-rocks there are certain types which occur constantly in different areas-viz., the aruphibolitic plagioclase- rocks and the granulitic rocks Composed of quartz and alkaline feldspars. Among the latter soda: granulites as well as potash are met with; also the corresponding gneisses occur. GROUP I.-THE ORES OF THE ARCHEAN CRYSTALLINE SCHISTS. The Rocks. The ore-bearing rocks of the ore-province of central Sweden are chemically and petrographically unlike the more monotonous gneiss- and granite-areas which surround them. On the whole, they constitute a quartz-feldspar formation in which purer quartzitic rocks, limestones, " skarn " rocks, and ore-bodies are very subordinate members. (Skarn is the Swedish name for rocks of varying composition, mostly consisting of lime, magnesia, iron, and alumina, silicates of the pyroxene, amphibole, and garnet groups; as secondary minerals, epidote, chlorite, biotite, and talc occur. The skarn is scarcely an independent rock but is connected with the ore-deposits. It is formed through an interchange between the silica of the quartz-feldspar rocks and the basic constituents of the ore-formation.) [A BRIDGED SUMMARY.-The amphibolites must be considered as stretched and dynamo-metamorphosed dioritic rocks. The granulites are divided into two groups, one showing predominant plagioclase, the other equal or predominant orthoclase. Evidently, the iron-ore deposits are connected in some way with the

Jan 1, 1913

By Paul C. Merritt

Chrysotile asbestos producers in Quebec may soon experience a unique situation-i.e., strong competition from American ore sources for the short fiber market west of the Mississippi River. This com- petition will be forthcoming from Copperopolis and Coalinga, two deposits now being developed on opposite flanks of the San Joaquin Valley in central California. The combined output now planned from both deposits is 100,000 tons annually, equivalent to about 50% of the annual market demand in the western, central and Gulf States, and more than twice the tonnage sold in 1960 by all other American asbestos producers combined. The principal companies involved in these new undertakings are Jefferson Lake Asbestos Corp. (subsidiary of Jefferson Lake Sulphur Co.), Hidden Splendor Mining Co., Coalinga Asbestos Co. (Johns- Manville Corp. in conjunction with Kern County Land Co.), Union Carbide Corp., and Asbestos Corp. Ltd. Jefferson Lake's principal interest is at Copperopolis where the company's new 70,000-ton per yr mill recently went on stream. The company also holds some claims at Coalinga, but this latter area is better known as the site where Hidden Splendor, Coalinga Asbestos Co. and Todd Industries (a local company) have established operating mines and mills capable of turning out 30,000 tons of fiber each year. Coalinga is also the site of exploration by Union Carbide Nuclear and Asbestos Corp. Ltd.

Jan 9, 1962

By Allen F. Agnew

Geologic studies for the Federal and State governments in the Wisconsin-Illinois-Iowa zinc-lead district were begun in 1835, and subse¬quent surveys were made in the three states at in¬tervals until 1916, see Table I. The current study of the district, Fig. 1, by the U. S. Geological Survey was begun in 1942 in the hope that a systematic investigation would help in¬crease production of zinc and lead, then in ex¬tremely short supply. Major emphasis of the USGS program was on detailed mapping of the geologic structure and ore deposits. Preliminary maps and reports covering localities of intensive mining ac¬tivity have been published during the course of this study, Fig. 2. By 1950 the objectives of the study by the USGS were revised; 7Y2-min quadrangles of relatively unprospected localities as well as inten¬sively mined localities are now being mapped in Wisconsin. Since 1945 the investigation in Wiscon¬sin has been made in cooperation with the Wiscon¬sin Geological and Natural History Survey, and since 1951 the geologic mapping of areas of particu¬lar interest in Iowa has been performed in coopera¬tion with the Iowa Geological Survey. At intervals since 1943 the Illinois State Geological Survey has mapped the geologic structure and ore deposits of localities in the Illinois part of the mining district, see Fig. 2.

Aug 1, 1955

By O. E. Kiessling

A GROWING uneasiness in the oil fields indicates that doubts are arising as to the efficiency of the present technical, economic and legal arrangements affecting production. Recent documents of the federal government, debates in state legislatures, editorials in the daily press and statements of oil company executives re-echo the notion that the present methods of producing oil satisfy neither the business man nor the public. Such intimations are of utmost importance, since oil is a vital clement in modern industry and dependence upon it increases as new uses develop. SECTION I-PRESENT SCHEME OF COMPETITIVE EXPLOITATION IS WASTEFUL The oil industry has convinced itself, for very good reasons, that the present scheme of competitive exploitation results in losses, both in terms of quantities of oil and in terms of profits. The story of these losses is familiar enough, and it is necessary only to distinguish and summarize briefly certain factors that are of importance to the following argument. Oil pools are exploited under a competitive economic system based on private ownership and contract; the hope of profits attracts capital and enterprise, and competition is supposed to serve as a regulative factor. Whether such a scheme of industrial organization works is partially dependent on the ability of the producer to withhold or produce is commodity as he sees fit, in accordance with the dictates of market demand.

Jan 1, 1927

In the late 19th century Fremont Pass was only a gateway to Leadville, Colo., 12 miles to the north. Some of the silver, lead, and zinc won from this famous camp crossed the Continental Divide at Climax, passing by the huge outcrop of molybdenum on Bartlett Mountain. This element, relatively un- known in the world of commerce, was then nothing more than a joke to play on greenhorn prospectors. Even 30 or 40 years later, after the demand for metals created by World War I had forced temporary use of molybdenum as an alternate for tungsten in tool steels, the Bartlett Mountain outcrop once again became merely a curiosity. With the persistent efforts of Brainerd Phillipson, for years the president of Climax and almost the only employe, use of molybdenum gradually began to grow, first in tool steel and later in the alloy steels required by the growing automotive industry. Mr. Phillipson was first an engineer and second a salesman. The combination of these two qualities is the key to the story, not only of Climax sales but also of the growth of molybdenum from an object of idle curiosity to the point where it is today, along with chromium and nickel, one of the most versatile alloying elements in the iron and steel industries and increasingly important in chemistry.

Aug 1, 1955

By C. K. Leith

The ores of the region are contained in rocks of pre-Cambrian age, which, for most of the country up to recent years, have usually been referred to as “crystalline schists” or “crystalline complex;” and regarded principally as a metamorphosed basement-unit upon which the sedimentary rocks, beginning with the Paleozoic, were laid down. In the Lake Superior region this pre-Cambrian complex presents an' unusual variety of rocks with determinable relations. It has been possible, with the large expenditures which the magnitude of the iron-mining industry warrants, to work out their stratigraphy to a larger degree than bas been possible in almost any other area of pre-Cambrian rocks. [The portion here omitted contains descriptions of the Archean, Algonkian, and Keweenawan rocks of the several districts, their structure, distribution, correlation, and succession. Table I. and the geological map of the Lake Superior region belong to this portion, but are here reproduced on account of their value as guides to the readers of the rest of the paper.] The simplest and clearest conception of the pre-ambrian succession for the Lake Superior region may perhaps be obtained by thinking of it as primarily divided into six series-Keweenawan, Upper Huronian, Middle Huronian, Lower Huronian, Keewatin, and Laurentian-all but the last two separated by unconformities of varying and disputed relative im-

Jan 1, 1913

By Persifor Frazer

For various reasons I have not specified the locality where the research indicated in the following pages was undertaken. It will suffice to say that it was on the grounds of a villa once remote from, but now completely surrounded by, its neighboring city, and in close proximity to an industrial establishment of great extent and importance manufacturing many kinds of steel articles and employing upwards of thirty chimney-stacks for power and process work. The problem was to discover the cause or causes of the mortality to trees and plants on the place, and to trace these causes to their origin. Before undertaking this experimental work, the bibliography accompanying this paper was compiled and studied. It appears from an examination of the careful scientific work performed by the ablest French, German, and English chemists during the last 25 years that they are unanimous in assigning the principal—in fact, the overwhelmingly predominant— cause of the destruction of vegetation to sulphur oxides, resulting either from direct oxidation of sulphur in oil of vitriol works, etc., or from the oxidation of the sulphur from the minerals associated with commercial coal. Schroder and Schertel showed in 1884 that the sulphates deposited upon the leaves are not injurious to the plants; and Freytag proved that free sulphuric acid could not be found

Jan 1, 1908

By A. F. Melcher

THE present paper is a progress report. on an investigation of the physical factors of oil and gas and especially of their sands, I such as-pore space, size of pores or permeability, retentivity, viscosity of the oil, temperature, pressure, thickness and area of the pay sand, water relations, and capillarity. The purpose is to determine as many of these physical factors as possible, and to ascertain the relations existing, directly or indirectly, between these physical factors and the production of oil and gas. As yet only pore space2 and size of grains of pay sands have, been investigated, although an apparatus has been designed to determine the permeability of a sand to oil, water, or gas under definite drops of pressure between the entrance face and exit face of the sample. Messrs. E. W. Shaw, R. Van A. Mills, D. Dale Condit, G. B. Richardson, G. C. Matson, and C. H. Wegemann collected the samples upon which the physical determinations were made. Acknowledgment is made to my colleagues of the United States Geological Survey for many suggestions and criticisms; to Mr. Mills for the production data given of the oil wells from which some of the samples were collected; to Mr. A. W. McCoy of the Empire Gas and Fuel Co., Bartlesville, Okla., for many ideas.

Jan 4, 1920

By Edward Steidle

NOTHING stands still. We go forward or backward. As a distinct group of educators, our immediate concern is with the preparation of young men and women for participation in the mineral industries on a professional basis. I am going to have the temerity to state emphatically that for a long time as a whole we have remained in a static position. We are now confronted with the choice of advancement or retrogression. We are still in a position to make a choice and our ultimate fate will depend upon the course of action we elect to follow. Wars always have been great catalysts and social and scientific advancements mature under military stimulus in a fraction of the time normally consumed. We are now in the midst of a conflict whose duration or final effects cannot be estimated. However, the record already demonstrates that this war as never before is a mineral war in which incentive, strategy, and outcome are directly related to the distribution and utilization of minerals. The inevitable result is a drain upon our resources now reflected in our record production and a growing public consciousness of the importance of minerals in the role of human affairs. It is evident that we must seek new mineral frontiers beyond the borders of the United States and take every other precaution to forestall a "have-not" position in the world.

Jan 1, 1943

By M. Vallée

This case study compares the actual production figures for the No. I and No. 2 copper orebodies of the Société Miniére Louvem, Val d'Or, Quebec, with the preproduction estimates and a postmortem geostatistical estimation using kriging techniques. The deposits considered are small subvertical sulphide orebodies which were mined from August 1970 to April 1973, producing 648,000 tons at 2.04% Cu versus the 1968 computed reserves of 671,000 tons at 2.51% Cu (with 20% dilution), thus showing a 25% overestimation of the copper contained. The postmortem geostatistical estimation based on the same 44 D.D.H. intersections available in 1968, shows 2.24% Cu (no dilution), compared to 3.23% Cu (no dilution) given by the conventional section method. Block by block kriging techniques were used, but within the ore contours as determined by the geologist. In this case, Characterized like many sulphide deposits by highly dispersed sample values, geostatistical kriging techniques permit a more realistic estimation of the metal contained within a given volume, than the conventional methods which overestimate it. This study has been conducted by the Mineral Exploration Research institute (IREM-MERI) for SOQUEM, and is one of the few case studies released with all pertinent data. More postmortem of this kind are required for geologists and geostatisticians to improve their methods and their "batting average".

Jan 1, 1977

By Raymond H. Young, Paul Sennett

INTRODUCTION Kaolin clay, consisting largely of the mineral kaolinite, is widely used as a white pigment. In the United States, for instance, pigment kaolin production was nearly 6,000,000 tons in 1976 (1). Production for this year should be significantly above this level. Current prices for kaolinite 'pigments range from about $20.00/ ton to$260.00/tony,depending on the amount of processing needed to make the final product. Although much of this pigment kaolinite is used as an inert filler where product specifications are not very rigid, a large quantity of kaolinite is converted to products where very restrictive specifications exist. These specifications set severe limits on such properties as viscosity in a water suspension, particle size distribution, color, and brightness. This discussion will concentrate on methods available to improve the color and brightness of pigment kaolin and will review the advantages and problems associated with these various methods. The term "brightness" refers to the reflectance of the pigment to blue light (2). Since even the brightest commercial kaolins have a somewhat yellowish color, the blue reflectance (or brightness) is a reasonably good measure of their nearness to a perfectly white material. I KAOLINITE STRUCTURE AND SOURCES The mineral kaolinite is an aluminum silicate and can be represented by the formula (OH) 8Si4A14010. The formula is frequently written

Jan 1, 1979

By Blamey Stevens

The object of this paper is to show how igneous intrusion is governed by definite mechanical laws. A distinction is made between dikes and fissures, and the various characteristics of intrusions are explained on an exact scientific basis. The modification of rock-stresses by intrusion is then considered and extensive isostress regions are recognized. Finally, a complete classification of intrusions is constructed covering all possible cases. The generalizations of observed data, taken from Geikie's Text-Book of Geology, confornl to the laws of intrusion herein stated, and the deductions based upon these lams. No authority, however, is quoted for the type which I hare named a corrugated intrusion. Its existence is a necessary deduction from the laws of intrusion, and even the entire absence of examples in technical publications cannot disprove its reality. In all probability, corrugated fissures would have remained undiscovered, but for the nrorking of mineral veins. As intrusions of tabular form are seldom worked for commercial purposes, it has been left for theory to anticipate the discovery of corrugated dikes. In the light of these laws of intrusion and the corresponding laws of fissures,' there seems to be a remarkable uniformity of stress-distribution in rocks at moderate depths. This renders possible the mathematical calculation which should help us to approximate exact science in this and kindred branches of applied geology.

Jan 1, 1911

Report of Secretary TO THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING AND METALLURGICAL ENGINEERS Gentlemen -I herewith present a report of some of the more important activities of the Institute for the year of 1922. The outstanding feature of the year is the optimism felt by our members despite the continued depression in the mining industry. January 1, 1921, found many of our members out of employment or drifting into other industries to tide them over the depression; but almost universally the feeling has been that this was but a temporary condition and that sooner or later the necessary production of raw materials would enable these members to return to their former activities and renew their participation in Institute affairs As the year passed conditions improved and, before it ended, many had found employment in their previous occupations. Bearing in mind that this depression has been very real, we have reason to be well satisfied with the work that the Institute has been able to do The loss of members through inability to pay dues has been large, and income has been correspondingly reduced, but it proved to be materially in excess of that anticipated early in the year, so that a substantial and unanticipated balance was carried forward toward the activities of 1923.

Jan 1, 1923

By Henry Howland

INTRODUCTION DURING the last decade no topic has created more interest or received more thought among blast-furnace men than colic. One reason for this is, undoubtedly, the remarkable increase in the use of byproduct coke. Formerly our coke was made at a distance from the furnaces and by a distinct organization. There was little cooperation or development possible under these conditions. Today the situation is greatly changed. Much of our coke is made by the organization operating the furnaces and the coke oven is operated with the primary object of obtaining the best results in the blast furnace. The effect of changing the method of coke manufacture, even in some minor detail, is often felt almost immediately at the blast furnace. There naturally results one of the most valuable assets of the byproduct coke oven, -i.e., the possibility of increased blast-furnace efficiency clue to close observance and correct operation of the ovens. The results are evident, but it often is difficult correctly to account for them. In attacking the solution of a problem of as much importance as why one coke is better than another, there are facts which should be kept clearly in mind The author hopes, in this paper, to bring out some points relative to the use of carbon in the blast furnace which will be of value in solving this question.

Jan 3, 1916

By Henry Faul

MEASUREMENT of radioactivity of rocks and ores has developed into a complete method of geophysical exploration. The problem falls into three natural categories: (I) surface radiation measurement in the field and underground; (2) radioactivity logging of drillholes; and (3) laboratory analysis of samples. Portable counters are used in the field for tracing radioactive formations and for quantitative estimates of radioactive content of surface rock. Wartime advances in battery design make it possible to construct small precision counters that can be carried easily. Even the smallest conventional diamond drillholes can be logged, and actual content of the radioactive element can be measured. The exact grade of very thin active layers or veins can be estimated only approximately. Samples may be analyzed for their alpha, beta or gamma activity, and beta assaying is the best suited to rapid routine operation. Simple calibration with standard samples is sufficient for rough work, but a density correction is necessary when greater precision is required. Samples with high emanating power should be fixed and stored for three weeks to reestablish the radium-radon equilibrium prior to precision assaying. Carnotite can be fixed by sintering or molding with plastics. Among the important new developments, a low-voltage Geiger tube has been designed recently, and crystal scintillation counters hold great promise for high-efficiency gamma-ray measurement.

Jan 1, 1947

By M. G. Benz, J. F. Elliott

A. J. Goldak and J. Gordon Parr (U)iuersity of Alberta) —Margolin and Ence's paper reached us only a few days after we had submitted a paper on the structure of Ti2Cu to the AIME. Here, however, we only wish to point out an error in the paper (page 321): "Karlsson has reported the crystal structure of the first intermediate phase occurring in the Ti-rich portion of the Ti-Cu system to be face-centered tetragonal." Karlsson actually reported the structure of Ti3Cu (i.e., "the first intermediate phase") to be primitive tetragonal with four atoms per lattice point: Cu at 0, 0, 0; and Ti at 1/2, 1/2, 0; 0, 1/2, 1/2; and 1/2, 0, 1/2. Thus, Karlsson suggests a primitive lattice with an ordered arrangement of atoms located at corners and face-centers: Ence and Margolin suggest a random body-centered tetragonal structure—-with which our results agree. E. Ence and H. Margolin (authors' reply)— We do not agree that Karlsson has not reported the structure of Ti3Cu as face-centered tetragonal. The fact that Cu atoms are located at the corners and titanium at the face-centers does not indicate that the lattice is not face-centered. We are pleased that the discussers' results agree with our own.

Jan 1, 1962

By H. Margolin, E. Ence

A. J. Goldak and J. Gordon Parr University of Alberta) —Margolin and Ence's paper reached us only a few days after we had submitted a paper on the structure of Ti2Cu to the AIME. Here, however, we only wish to point out an error in the paper (page 321): "Karlsson has reported the crystal structure of the first intermediate phase occurring in the Ti-rich portion of the Ti-Cu system to be face-centered tetragonal." Karlsson actually reported the structure of Ti3Cu (i.e., "the first intermediate phase") to be primitive tetragonal with four atoms per lattice point: Cu at 0, 0, 0; and Ti at 1/2, 1/2, 0; 0, 1/2, 1/2; and 1/2, 0, 1/2. Thus, Karlsson suggests a primitive lattice with an ordered arrangement of atoms located at corners and face-centers: Ence and Margolin suggest a random body-centered tetragonal structure—-with which our results agree. E. Ence and H. Margolin (azlt1zo.l-s' reply)— We do not agree that Karlsson has not reported the structure of Ti3Cu as face-centered tetragonal. The fact that Cu atoms are located at the corners and titanium at the face-centers does not indicate that the lattice is not face-centered. We are pleased that the discussers' results agree with our own.

Jan 1, 1962

By Carl Gatlin, S. Srini-Vasan

It is shown thar k k ratios cornputed on the as.sutnption that the average sandstone reservoir has a pore-size distribution characrerized by a linear 1/P saturatioN plo are in good agreewient with correspotlding k,,/k,, ratios obfairzed by Wahl, Mul-/ins and Elfrink by correlatiotz of field measurements. Methods of calculating relative permeability data have recently been reviewed and extended.' It was shown that for sandstone reservoirs where ' is approximately a linear function of effective saturation (as suggested first by Corey') it is possible to express relative permeabilities in very simple terms. For systems wetted by connate water and producing oil and gas (gas saturation growing at the expense of oil) the expression for the The accuracy of Eq. I has been frequently confirmed in our laboratories; because of its simplicity we make routine use of it in the analytical solution of proble~ns in reservoir engineering. Nevertheless, comparisons of the k,,,/k,, ratios yielded by Eq. 1 with appropriate reservoir data have been few. The publica- tion by Wahl, Mullins and ElfrinkV of an empirical equation for k,,/k,, ratios is thus of interest since this equation is specificalljl stated to be Vased on the correlation of field measurements made on sandstone reservoirs. Not surprisingly these authors found that it was necessary to