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By Brison Robertson, W. P. Fishel

THE carbide-forming tendencies of the various steel-alloying elements, or their affinities for carbon, is a subject that has received considerable attention, but little more than a probable arrangement of the elements as to their carbide-forming tendencies has been proposed. The physical properties of alloy steels depend upon the relative proportions of the elements present and their combinations. One important phase of this subject is the distribution of carbon between the various elements present. The distribution of carbon between iron and other elements evidently will depend upon: (I) the affinity of each for carbon; (2) the relative atomic masses of the elements present; and (3) the possible formation of compounds between the alloying elements and iron and between the elements themselves. In ternary steels the case is simplified, especially in systems in which the element and iron form no compounds. In such systems iron and the alloying element are competing for the carbon present. In this work the distribution of carbon between titanium and iron has been studied by measuring the relative amounts of iron carbide and titanium carbide present in a series of annealed steels in which the ratio of titanium to carbon extended from 0.527 to 4.61. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Ten Fe-Ti-C alloys, weighing about 250 grams each, were prepared by melting under a vacuum, in an induction furnace, Armco iron, carbon-free ferrotitanium (25 per cent Ti), and pure carbon. Vacuum melting prevented the formation of titanium oxides and nitrides, which would complicate the problem. The melts were made in graphite crucibles lined with sintered magnesium oxide. The ingots were cooled in the furnace under a vacuum and were then completely annealed at 950°C. The determination of the amount of titanium carbide present was based upon the established insolubility of titanium carbide in boiling dilute (I :4) sulphuric acid, and the complete solubility of free titanium and titanium-iron compounds in this acid. High-carbon ferrotitanium, which had been treated to remove free Ti and Fe, was found to be completely insoluble in the acid; and the carbon-free ferrotitanium used in making the alloys was found to be completely soluble. Others 1,2 have reported the insolubility of titanium carbide in sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. Turnings from the ingots were digested with boiling sulphuric acid (1:4) until all action had ceased. The carbide residue was filtered off and analyzed for titanium, and in some cases for carbon. This represents the titanium that was united with carbon. The filtrate from the carbide residue contains the portion of the titanium that wasin solid solution in the ferrite. Titanium

Jan 1, 1944

By George A. Moore

A recent survey of existing analytical results, and an attempt to correlate them with each other and with the known history and behavior of the samples, indicated that none of the commonly applied methods could be considered established as intrinsically reliable. It was. therefore, desired to attempt to establish the reliahility of some one method by external evidence. If this were to be accomplished, other methods could then be evaluated in terms of the method establibhed. The correct method was accordingly to be chosen without regard for cost, speed, or convenience; with the requirements for routine application to be reserved for 1ater consideration. The method of total combustion was chosen and submitted to a limited number of tests against primary standard samples. Considerable experimental difficulty was encountered, indicating that additional work on the experimental arrangements is desirable. While the work to (late by no means represents a completed investigation, it is helieved that the combustion method is basically sound and that its development should be continued. Choice of Method Of the several available methods, mechanical disintegration. electrochemical methods'2'3 modifications of the Sieverts experiment,% and vacuum fusion, were all judged to contain one or more factors of un- certainty not at present completely cvaluated or suhject to complete control. These methods, therefore, were considered currently unsuitable for referee purposes. Solid evolution was considered to be of doubtful significance when conducted in the alpha range. A reasonable chance for a true analysis was found for evolution in the gamma range. Preliminary tests have indicated a very slow rate for evolutioll from gamma iron. indicating a running time of possibly 100 hr. for a one-centimeter sample. Difliculty in distinguishing such slow. evolution from blank gas was anticipated, hence the method was not consitlerctl the most suitable for the present purpose. The combustion method was evaluated as being most sound on fundamental principles. The only important unknown would be to determine that the iron oxide formed did not occlude water at the tcmperaturv of the combustion.with the odvious precautions of using a sound and clean specimen, providing a system sufficiently tight to give acceptable blanks in longtime runs, and providing a suficicntly sensitive measuring system, reasonable, precise, and truthful analytical results could be logically expected. Apparatus The equipment as originally operated is shown in Fig. I, and the glassw-are in its latest modification in Fig. 2. The sulphuric acid drier and small safety tube in the upper right of Fig. I were replaced by a KOH drier and combined manometer safety tube, to permit operation at reduced

Jan 1, 1945

By H. L. Riley, B. W. Gandrud

A froth flotation unit was added to the DeBardeleben Coal Corporation's Empire washer at Empire, Alabama, in the fall Of I94O following an investigation of possible ways and means of recovering coal values from settling-tank overflow or slurry. Officials of the DeBardeleben corporation hoped that some practical and reasonably economical way could be found for recovering fine coal from overflow water, although there had as yet been very little progress along this line in the Alabama coal fields. The Bureau of Mines was asked to cooperate in the project through its Southern Experiment Station, at University, Alabama. This paper presents a brief description of the process and the installation that resulted from the investigation of the overflow water or slurry problem at the Empire mine. The experimental data include' as a Part of this Paper were obtained during the course of the investigation in 1940 Since that time, however, the flotation unit has been running more or less continuously without significant operational changes and is still Performing pretty much in accordance with the data obtained in 1940. Flowsheet at Empire and Type of Coal Treated The Empire mine is developed on the Black Creek bed near the the border of the Warrior field. The coal in this bed is extremely low-ash and although there is an almost complete absence of bone coal and partings, the bed is so thin that, with mechanized mining, a high percentage of rock from roof and floor inevitably gets into the run-of-mine coal. The thickness of the Black Creek bed throughout the part of the Warrior field in which it is mined extensively is rarely over 30 in. and probably would average about 25 in, the coal is of the high-volatile A rank and of excellent quality, but as a result of admixture of roof and floor material, the run-of-mine product usually contains I ; to 20 pct rock by weight. he following is a proximate analysis on an "as-received " basis of a typical seam sample from the Empire mine:' moisture, 3.0 pet; volatile, 34.6 fixed carbon 58.3; ash, 4.1 This sample shelved 15,070 Btu per pound and 0.9 pct sulphur on a moisture-and-ash-free basis. In the Empire preparation plant the lump sizes above 3 in. are removed and hand-picked on a Marcus conveying Screen, the 3 to ? -in. size is removed by vibrating screens and washed in two Montgomery single-cell jigs, and the ?-in. to o slack is cleaned on four diagonal

Jan 1, 1949

By AIME AIME

Council.* PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL. ROBERT Wm. HUNT CHICAGO, ILL. (Term expires February, 1907.) VICE-PRESIDENTS OF THE COUNCIL. WILLIAM P. BLAKE TUCSON, ARIZ. THOMAS F. COLE DULUTH, MINN. IRVING A. STEARNS WILKES-BARRE, PA. (Term expires February, 1907.) HENRY M . HOWE NEW YORK, N. Y. J. B. GRANT DENVER, COLO. JAMES D. HAGUE NEW YORK, N. Y. (Term expires February, 1909.) COUNCILORS. F. L. GRAMMER BALTIMORE, MD. JOSEPH HARTSHORNE POTTSTOWN, PA. CHARLES H. SNOW NEW YORK, N. Y. (Term expires February, 1907.) A. A. BLOW WASHINGTON, D. C. FRANK LYMAN NEW YORK, N. Y. T. A. RICKARD SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. (Term expires February, 1908.) THEODORE DWIGHT NEW YORK, N. Y. WALTER WOOD PHILADELPHIA, PA. WM. FLEET ROBERTSON VICTORIA, B. C., CAN. (Term expires February, 1903.) SECRETARY OF THE COUNCIL. R. W. RAYMOND, No. 99 John Street NEW YORK, N. Y. (Term expires February, 1907.) ASSISTANT SECRETARY AND EDITOR. JOSEPH STRUTHERS NEW YORK, N. Y.

Mar 1, 1906

By E. M. Chance

HERBERT M. WILSON, Pittsburgh, Pa. (written discussion).-Permit me to endorse the author's conclusions and their form of presentation as ,being, in my judgment, the last word 'on the subject of lights for the illumination of coal mines. I also feel that the open-flame oil lamp has outlived its usefulness, and that it should go, in the interests not only of safety but of efficiency. Where an open-flame lamp can be used with safety in non-gaseous mines, the acetylene light adds materially to efficiency by its better illumination, and to safety for the numerous reasons given by Mr. Chance. The latter, however, lays chief stress on the value of the acetylene because of its non-fouling and non-obscuring effect on the atmosphere. Another important advantage over any other form of illumination is the clear, bright light projected at the point where the workman may look for danger. The better illumination materially safeguards the worker against obstacles over which he may stumble when traveling, and against dangers from falls of roof or of coal, weakness in timbering, and similar conditions. The acetylene lamp, where it may be used with safety, has advantages even over the present electric cap lamp, in that it gives a higher luminosity; and when the miner comes to learn its signals, as he will in time, just as he learns those given by the open-flame or the safety lamp, he will find that the acetylene lamp is a fair detector not only of methane but of carbon dioxide, as clearly shown by Mr. Chance. The only, serious objection, raised against the use of carbide lamps. has been recently in Pennsylvania, due to the belief of the State Mine Inspection Department that it endangered miners working on pillar work, or other places where carbon dioxide might accumulate, or where there is lack of sufficient ventilation, and because it was believed that the indications of the carbide lamp would not give the miner sufficient warning. On this point Mr. Chance has clearly shown the fallacies of the objections. I may add that for those unable to detect carbon dioxide with the acetylene lamp, the maximum of protection would be afforded by using an open oil lamp or a flame safety lamp in such places; or, because the miner might not watch his oil light, a better, protection still would be offered by a sufficient number of daily inspections of such working places by a fire boss or other official, with flame safety lamp.

Jan 4, 1917

By Enid C. Plante

THIS paper deals with the flotation of the mineral fluorite (calcium fluoride) and of two associated gangue minerals, calcite and quartz. The aim of the investigation was to produce "acid-grade" fluorite, which must contain less than one per cent of silica. Several reagents are used successfully in practice for floating fluorite from its ores. Oleic acid is the most widely used collector, usually at temperatures above 60°C, with sodium silicate as a dispersant for quartz and quebracho or tannin to depress calcite. Sulphides (e.g., galena) are often removed first by xanthate flotation. Many investigators23 report results in which more than 80 pct of the fluorite is recovered in a concentrate assaying 96 pct or more of fluorite and less than I pct of silica. This investigation was undertaken with the intention of floating the gangue, which is the minor constituent of the ore, from the fluorite. Hence emphasis was first placed on the cationic compounds that float quartz. No satisfactory separations were obtained in this way, and other reagents were investigated to discover whether these were more effective than oleic acid in floating fluorite from quartz in the usual way. The first part of the paper describes experiments with several long-chain collectors available commercially. Most of this work has been by captive-bubble and cylinder flotation tests, with some batch tests in a flotation machine. The second part describes the use of sodium cetyl sulphate as a collector for fluorite and includes laboratory tests and extension of the work to batch tests in the flotation machine. A method for determining the adsorption of sodium cetyl sulphate on fluorite has been developed and is described. Theory of Collection by Paraffin-chain Salts It may be assumed that these compounds are adsorbed at the mineral surface in one or more of three ways outlined by Kolthoff :12 I. Exchange adsorption between lattice ions in the mineral surface and collector ions in solution. Closely related is adsorption by the collecting mechanism postulated by Taggart,17 in which there is metathesis between the collector and the mineral cation or anion. 2. Exchange adsorption between adsorbed gegen ions (p. 67, ref. 19) and collector ions in solution. 3. Adsorption of nonelectrolytes (polarnonpolar) without displacement of adsorbed ions. With cationic collectors, inorganic cations in the solution (e.g., hydrogen ion) compete with the collector ions and therefore act as depressants, while inorganic anions have the same effect with anionic collectors. From this follows the general conclusion that ions of the same charge as

Jan 1, 1947

By Grover J. Holt

A DETAILED description of the many variations in iron mining and transportation practice in Minnesota would require much space. Since a fairly detailed description of the practices then in use was published in the guidebook issued in connection with the meeting of the Institute on the iron ranges in I920, and subsequent developments have been described by E. E. Hunner,1 M. H. Barber,2 and A. E. Anderson, J. M. Riddell and G. J. Holt,3 it will not be necessary here to do more than review the highlights of current practice. Details on any points of interest can be obtained through correspondence with the operators involved. [T] The iron ores of Minnesota, which have been formed through enrichment of the iron formation in which they occur, largely by the removal of silica, are usually covered by a blanket of glacial drift known locally as "surface." Surface material, including sand, clay, hardpan and boulders, makes up the greater portion of the stripping in open-pit operations. In some instances, stripping also includes taconite and "paint rock," directly below the surface material and overlying the ore. Taconite is the iron formation, a ferruginous chert with interbedded slate layers. "Paint rock" is a local term for oxidized slate layers interbedded in the iron formation, high in phosphorus, alumina and moisture. The iron ores fall into two classes: (I) direct shipping (merchantable ores or ores requiring no treatment except possibly crushing or screening to make an acceptable sized product), and (2) ores requiring beneficiation (such as sintering, drying, washing, jigging, high-density treatment, or magnetic separation in the case of magnetite). The Mesabi Range produces chiefly soft Bessemer and non-Bessemer ores. The Cuyuna Range produces mainly low-manganese brown ore and high-manganese black ores, with some iron ore. The Vermilion Range yields mainly Besse¬mer and non-Bessemer iron ore, with some hard or lump ore that finds use in the open hearth. Open-pit mining is limited to the Mesabi and Cuyuna Ranges but underground mining is done on all three. The choice of mining methods is determined by the relative economics of overburden¬-removal and shaft-mining costs. STRIPPING PRACTICE Common practice has been to remove the bulk of the overburden during the winter season and to mine during the summer. In the present emergency many operators are forced to forego the economies attained by year-round utilization of equipment and to equip for, and carry on, stripping and mining simultaneously. In the normal years or lean years to come, most properties probably will be over-equipped and high depreciation charges will have to be absorbed.

Jan 1, 1942

ARTICLE I NAME AND OBJECT SEC. I. This Institute is incorporated under the Membership Corporations law of the State of New York; its corporate name is American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, Inc.; and its objects are such as are stated in its Certificate of Incorporation. ARTICLE II MEMBERS SEC. 1. The membership of the Institute shall comprise four classes, namely: 1. Members; 2. Honorary Members; 3. Associates; 4. Junior Associates. All members shall be equally entitled to the privileges of membership, excepting that Honorary Members, Junior Associates, and Members and Associates whose residences shall be outside of the United States, Mexico, and Canada shall not be entitled to vote. Members and Associates residing within the United States of America, Mexico, and Canada, .and not in arrears for dues, shall be entitled to vote in person at the meetings of the Institute, or, as hereinafter provided for, by letter ballot. SEC. 2. Members shall comprise all those persons who on the third Monday of February, 1918, were members of the Institute, and in addition thereto, all those thereafter elected or transferred into the class of Members. A person to be eligible for election or transfer into the class of Members must be at least 27 years of age and must have had at least six years' employment in the practice of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, during at least three years of which he must have held positions of responsibility in one or more of these fields. Graduation from the scientific course of a college, approved by the Committee on Membership, shall be considered equivalent to two years' employment, as required in the previous sentence. Employment as a teacher of engineering, mining, geology, metallurgy or chemistry, if in direct charge, may be considered a position of responsibility as specified in the second paragraph. Persons employed in research or any scientific literary work or in teaching in the scientific departments of colleges, approved by the Committee on Membership, who at the same time are engaged in consulting or in the active practice of mining, geology, or metallurgy, shall be entitled to consider the time so spent in active practice as equivalent to an equal length of time of employment in positions of responsibility, provided the work done or the positions held seem to the Committee on Membership to warrant the equivalency. The requirement of three years' employment in positions of responsibility maybe waived by the Committee on Membership in the case of persons who have done notable original work in mining, geology, or metallurgy, or have won distinction by

Jan 1, 1925

By N. A. D. Parlee

THE gas-liquid metal diffusion cell technique1-3 has been used to study the diffusion of nitrogen in Fe-C alloys. The actual apparatus and technique were the same as employed by the authors to study the diffusion of hydrogen in liquid iron.' The diffusion cell' was formed by immersing an alumina tube in a stagnant melt contained in an alumina crucible. The tube (hereafter called absorption tube) contained nitrogen gas at 1 atm and was connected to a sensitive gas-measuring system. The change in the average concentration of nitrogen in the melt in the absorption tube was determined by measuring the rate of absorption of nitrogen in the diffusion cell. Eq. [I], 1-3 derived from the appropriate solution of Fick's second law, was used to examine the data and to calculate chemical diffusion coefficients (D) in situations where the absorption appeared to be controlled by diffusion in the liquid: where V is the stp volume in cu cm, d is the diffusion cell diameter in cm, p, is the density of the melt in g per cu cm, pg is the stp density of nitrogen in g per cu cm, C, is expressed in wt pct, D is in sq cm per sec, and t is in min. According to Eq. [I], a plot of v vs vt should yield a straight line passing through the origin if absorption is controlled by diffusion in the liquid. The slope of this line could be used to determine the value of D under appropriate conditions. As discussed in earlier reports,1,2 the initial thermal expansion of the gas upon immersing the absorption tube distorts the line in the initial stages of a diffusion experiment. However, this is not a serious problem since the slope of V vs 6 plots can be determined from the data points obtained after the initial expansion ceases. The volumes reported on the data plot presented here represent absorption after this thermal expansion ceased. Several preliminary diffusion experiments were attempted with melts of pure iron and with Fe-C alloys containing up to 0.6 pct C. In these cases, no or very little absorption was observed. The only data obtained were for an Fe-C melt which was in addition thoroughly deoxidized by successive hydrogen and vacuum-degassing treatments. These treatments introduced an appreciable amount of aluminum into the melt and reduced its omgen content. The original charge material for this melt contained 0.23 pct s and approximately 0.001 pct &. After repeated hydrogen and vacuum-degassing treatments two diffusion experiments were performed. The analysis of the melt

Jan 1, 1968

By R. H. Wightman

THE following paper describes current mining practices of the Riverside Cement Co. at its Crestmore plant, Riverside, California. For a number of years the Riverside Cement Co. obtained its raw materials by surface quarry operations but after these deposits were exhausted for equipment available at that time, the company started underground mining. Mine workings were begun in 1927 to 1930 for the recovery of limestone by block-caving methods. GEOLOGY The bed of limestone that is being worked is a metamorphosed and recrystallized limestone, which is generally white in color and from medium to coarsely crystalline. This bed is fissured by water courses that vary from minute cracks to large areas. The bed has also been cracked by intrusions along the footwall and hanging wall. These walls are coarse-grained, gray, quartz granodiorite. The strike of the deposit is north and south and it dips to the east at an angle of approximately 50º. The bed is approximately 1700 ft. long, 270 ft. thick at right angles to the dip at the middle of the deposit and tapers to a thickness of approximately 100 ft. at each end. MINING METHODS The mine layout consists of four main levels with elevations as follows: 892 Collar of shaft. 800 Manway level used for ventilation, prospect purposes and as an entrance into the stopes. 700 Mining level where all material is extracted and on which are located the tapping grizzlies. This is the elevation from which all main cutoff stopes and undercutting work is started. 660 Haulage level where the limestone is drawn from transfer raises into the cars and is transported to the tipple by electric locomotives. 633 Level where all water is collected and which keeps the general water table below the working levels. A detailed description of the mine was given in U. S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular No. 6795, in June 1934. Current Block Development The first blocks to be caved were developed very much after the procedure followed in the copper mines of Arizona. This paper covers the ninth block to be caved. With a hard, tough rock like our limestone, it was found that some alterations in the development and control of draw in caving were necessary to secure better crushing effect and provide more safety for such secondary blasting as is required. Sequence of Block Development I. The fringes of the 800-ft. manway level are driven to confirm the diamond drill information and serve to determine the final location and development required for the block (Fig. I).

Jan 1, 1944

By D. Turnbull, J. H. Hollomon, J. C. Fisher

UNDERSTANDING of the diffusion problem has recently been furthered by the analysis of Birchenall and Mehl.1 They pursued the problem of the variation of the diffusion coefficient with composition for non-ideal solid solutions. Their analysis follows the tradition of Wagner,2 Jost,3 Dehlinger,4 and Darken,' who assumed the net flux of dif¬fusing material to be proportional to the gradient of a quantity related to free energy. The basic assumption in Birchenall and Mehl's formulation of the problem is that the net flux of diffusing material is proportional to a thermodynamic activity gradient. To estimate the applicability of the derived relations, they corrected the diffusion coefficients of carbon in austenite by utilizing Smith's' activity data for carbon, and the diffusion coefficients for zinc in copper with activity data computed from the vapor pressure measurements of Hargreaves.7 The corrected coefficients for carbon were virtually independent of carbon concentration. For the diffusion of zinc in copper a moderate variation of diffusion coefficient with concentration remained after the correction. The problem of diffusion can be formulated in another way than that used by Birchenall and Mehl. The method is that of chemical rate theory and has been used by Eyring and his coworkers8,9 as well as by Eyring and Zwolinski10 in a discussion to Birchenall and Mehl's paper. As yet the method has not been applied to substitutional solid solutions. On the basis of their assumptions, Eyring and Zwolinski derived a relation between the diffusion coefficient and activity that is identical with that of Dehlinger and Darken but which does not correct for the variation of the diffusion coefficient with concentration as well as does the relation derived by Birchenall and Mehl. It was thought that the theory of diffusion would be more complete if the inconsistency between the two analyses could be rationalized and if diffusion in substitutional alloys were analyzed on the basis of the concepts of the chemical rate theory. CHEMICAL RATE THEORY According to the theory of absolute reaction rates8 the reaction [A,+A2+ ... +.A;->X,+X2 +...+X; EqI] is viewed as taking place in two steps. First the reactants A1, A2, . . . A[i] combine to form an activated complex M with which they are in equilibrium; [A, + A2 + .. . + Ai = M. Eq 2] Second the activated complex decomposes to give the products X1, X2. . .. X[j]; [M->X1+X2+ ... +.X;. Eq3] It has been shown8 that the number of activated complexes decomposing per unit volume per unit time is given by the expression† [kT]

Jan 1, 1948

By John Henry Harden

IN 1874, with Mr. H. Y. Attrill, of Baltimore, Md., I made an examination of some property at Goderich with reference to sinking for and mining salt. With this end in view we visited all the wells in the neighborhood, but the information sought being of so unreliable a character I advised the putting down of a borehole on the property. This has since been done, the result of which has lately been published by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt in the Toronto Globe. From this there appears to have been passed through six beds of salt of an aggregate thickness of 123 feet. Rock-salt was known to exist, for, by the boring of existing wells, small crystals had been brought to the surface in the dirt, but no attempt had before been made to obtain a reliable sample or to prove the number and thickness of the beds. The question now remaining for discussion is, shall the present method of obtaining the salt be continued, or shall the beds be won by a shaft in a regular mining fashion, by which means the salt may be gotten in a condition almost ready for the market? The present mode of obtaining salt is by boreholes from 6 inches to 8 inches in diameter drilled to the beds, into which is inserted a pump. The "feeders" of fresh water intersected in drilling the well are allowed to descend on the outside of the pump-tube to the salt beds and there become saturated, when, on use of the pump, brine is obtained for evaporation. In the beginning brine can only be had in limited quantity, but by the daily application of the pump, and the gradual solution of the salt, a larger surface becomes exposed to the action of the fresh water, and a continuous supply of brine is obtained. It will then be understood that the supply of brine is dependent upon the feeders of fresh water intersected in boring the well, which, we are told, have never shown any sign of diminution, and this is the water that must be encountered in sinking a shaft. There are ten wells in operation at Goderich, the most important one to the present project being known as the Hawley Well, located at an elevation a few feet above Lake Huron at the mouth of the river Maitland, at a much lower level and nearer to the proposed shaft than any other well in the district. At this well the feeders

Jan 1, 1877

By John Henry Harden

IN 1874, with Mr. H. Y. Attrill, of Baltimore, Md., I made an examination of some property at Goderich with reference to sinking for and mining salt. With this end in view we visited all the wells in the neighborhood, but the information sought being of so unreliable a character I advised the putting down of a borehole on the property. This has since been done, the result of which has lately been published by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt in the Toronto Globe. From this there appears to have been passed through six beds of salt of an aggregate thickness of 125 feet. Rock-salt was known to exist, for, by the boring of existing wells, small crystals had been brought to the surface in the dirt, but no attempt had before been made to obtain a reliable sample or to prove the number and thickness of the beds. The question now remaining for discussion is, shall the present method of obtaining the salt be continued, or shall the beds be won by a shaft in a regular mining fashion, by which means the salt may be gotten in a condition almost ready for the market? The present mode of obtaining salt is by boreholes from 6 inches to 8 inches in diameter drilled to the beds, into which is inserted a pump. The "feeders" of fresh water intersected in drilling the well are allowed to descend on the outside of the pump-tube to the salt beds and there become saturated, when, on use of the pump, brine is obtained for evaporation. In the beginning brine can only be had in limited quantity, but by the daily application of the pump, and the gradual solution of the salt, a larger surface becomes exposed to the action of the fresh water, and a continuons supply of brine is obtained. It will then be understood that the supply of brine is dependent upon the feeders of fresh water intersected in boring the well, which, we are told, have never shown any sign of diminution, and this is the water that must be encountered in sinking a shaft. There are ten wells in operation at Goderich, the most important one to the present project being known as the Hawley Well, located at an elevation a few feet above Lake Huron at the mouth of the river Maitland, at, a much lower level and nearer to the proposed shaft than any other well in the district. At this well the feeders

By Richard A. Walker, John P. Hager

The thermodynamic properties of the Pb-Au system have been determined between 750" and 1075°C by means of the cell Mo, Pb(1) |(PbO-SiO2){l) , SiO2(s) |Pb-Au(1), Mo The activities of lead and gold exhibit negative deviations from ideal behavior; the values of ? pb and ? the raoultain activity coefficients at infinite dilution, being 0.24 and 0.25, respectively, at 1200°K. The liquidus curve for the gold-rich region of the Pb-Au phase diagram has been determined from measure-ments on seven alloy compositions in the two phase region (liquid + Au(s)). The standard free energies of formation of Au2O(l) and Ag2O (1) have been estimated from cell measurements obtained by replacing the alloy electrode with pure liquid gold and silver. A new integral molar heat of mixing curve for the liquid Pb-Au system is presented and the results of previous studies discussed. The contribution of HM to FE was found to be small relative to TSE. THE use of galvanic cells of the type A(l) |A+Za|A - B(l) [I] provides an accurate means for the thermodynamic study of liquid alloy systems. In Part 1&apos; it was shown that cells of type [I] may be extended to higher temperatures and to a wider range of alloy systems if the ion A+Za is incorporated in an appropriate molten oxide phase, rather than in the classical fused salt electrolyte. In the following investigation the experimental method is extended to an investigation of the thermo-dynamic properties of the Pb-Au system by use of the cell: Mo, Pb(l) | (PbO-SiO2)(l), SiO2(S) |Pb-Au(l), Mo [] Previous measurements on liquid Pb-Au alloys were obtained by Kleppa2 by electromotive force measurements on a galvanic cell involving a molten chloride electrolyte. These measurements were confined to temperatures less than 830°C and compositions with X Pb > 0.2 because of the instability of the cell at higher temperatures. Later measurements by Kleppa3 on the heats of formation in the composition range 0.67 < Xpb < 0.98 were not consistent with the results by electromotive force measurement. The purpose of the present study is to extend the temperature and composition range of the thermodynamic properties and to obtain an independent measure of the integral molar heat of mixing over the entire composition range.

Jan 1, 1970

By Arthur F. Taggart, T. C. Fitt, A. W. Thomas

IT was noticed early by operators that high recoveries and flocculation of the sulphide minerals were closely correlated in agitation-froth flotation. Later, this readily visible flocculation was found almost invariably to be due to the binding together of the oiled sulphides by minute air bubbles, and is now known to be characteristic of pulps in which at least one of the mineral species is coated with an insoluble collecting oil. In 1930 it was reported1 that in differential flotation a correlation exists between Brownian movement of particles in the pulp and their nonfloatability, and that Brownian movement and dispersion are likewise correlated, whence it would appear to follow that dispersion of a mineral particle in a flotation pulp denotes a particle condition unfavorable to flotation. In 1934 it was postulated2 that Brownian movement, dispersion and nonfloatability all flow from the condition of the surface of the dispersed particles. It was also postulated at that time that the surfaces of dispersed particles are ionized, the ionized compound being a product of reaction between a component of the particle and a. component of the pulp, of a mass solubility of the general order of a fraction of a milligram to 15 to 20 mg. per liter. It was then further asserted, and has since been confirmed by Bankoff,3 that sulphides so conditioned with soluble collectors as to be floatable flocculate without the intervention of air bubbles as binding media. The present paper comprises an inquiry into the nature of the bound and counter ions in zinc sulphide dispersed by sodium arsenate. A part of its findings was mentioned in the 1934 paper above cited.2 The tests show that: I. When powdered granular zinc sulphide is immersed in aqueous solutions of sodium arsenate, arsenate ion is abstracted from solution and anchored to the solid surface, while sulphate and lower sulphoxy ions are concurrently displaced therefrom in substantially stoichiometric quantities. 2. The ion counterbalancing the anchored arsenate ion is zinc. 3. Dispersion and Brownian movement of zinc sulphide are concurrently maxima at an arsenate-ion concentration lying between 0.01 and 0.001-molar sodium arsenate. 4. Any condition or reaction that tends to remove the zinc arsenate coating from the zinc sulphide particles decreases dispersion and Brownian movement concurrently. EXPERIMENTAL Three samples of zinc sulphide were used. Lot I was C.P. zinc sulphide, washed well beyond absence of chloride, as shown by test with silver ion. Lot 2 was prepared by precipita-

Jan 1, 1943

By Vaughn Moyer

A method for incorporating well drawdown effect into reservoir calculations is presented in detail, together with examples of its use for widely divergent conditions that could be normally encountered in oil reservoir sands. Tentative conclusions as to the effect such factors as permeability, producing interval, well spacing, or well damage caused by completion or repair practice could have upon economic ultimate recovery are reached. It is carefully pointed out that the conclusions reached are subject to limitations indicated in the text, and placed upon all calculations made in the paper. Introduction Papers have been presentedl-3 in which theoretical depletion histories for reservoirs under equilibrium conditions and no appreciable well-bore drawdown pressure are determined. However, except for a limited number of cases, appreciable drawdown Pressures in a well bore exist, and Pressure and saturation gradients consequently vary throughout a reservoir. This Paper is an attempt to incorporate well-pressure drawdown into reservoir history, and to analyze certain factors, such as those involving recovery, well spacing, and productivity index, from the standpoint of permeability and drainage radius. BY incorporation of drawdown into reservoir history, it is believed that theoretical considerations will more closely approxi- mate actual reservoir behavior experienced in an oil field. For purposes of simplification, a solution gas-drive type field1 without primary gas cap, has been selected. Basic Data and Assumptions Details of equilibrium saturation conditions for no drawdown production for various pressures in a reservoir are deter-minable by methods described by several are permitting the construction of a curve of oil saturation vs Pressure for any selected combination of initial interstitial water and hydrocarbon saturation (Fig I). This curve is then a description of equilibrium saturation conditions at any given pressure in a reservoir. Developing the above, details of saturation and flow permeability may thus be determined for any increment or portion of a well drainage area or reservoir. In this manner the effect of pressure differential (drawdown) may be incorporated into reservoir and well drainage considerations. It is pointed out that this method thus makes use of no-drawdown equilibrium production data, superimposing a draw-hwn effect upon them. It also assumes that net flow conditions in any considered increment of reservoir are not materially altered by the entrance of fluids from other increments into them, but approach equilibrium for the existing pressure and saturation (i.e., each increment behaves in more or less independent fashion, dependent largely upon the equilibrium considerations mentioned above)

Jan 1, 1948

By Vaughn Moyer

A method for incorporating well drawdown effect into reservoir calculations is presented in detail, together with examples of its use for widely divergent conditions that could be normally encountered in oil reservoir sands. Tentative conclusions as to the effect such factors as permeability, producing interval, well spacing, or well damage caused by completion or repair practice could have upon economic ultimate recovery are reached. It is carefully pointed out that the conclusions reached are subject to limitations indicated in the text, and placed upon all calculations made in the paper. Introduction Papers have been presentedl-3 in which theoretical depletion histories for reservoirs under equilibrium conditions and no appreciable well-bore drawdown pressure are determined. However, except for a limited number of cases, appreciable drawdown Pressures in a well bore exist, and Pressure and saturation gradients consequently vary throughout a reservoir. This Paper is an attempt to incorporate well-pressure drawdown into reservoir history, and to analyze certain factors, such as those involving recovery, well spacing, and productivity index, from the standpoint of permeability and drainage radius. BY incorporation of drawdown into reservoir history, it is believed that theoretical considerations will more closely approxi- mate actual reservoir behavior experienced in an oil field. For purposes of simplification, a solution gas-drive type field1 without primary gas cap, has been selected. Basic Data and Assumptions Details of equilibrium saturation conditions for no drawdown production for various pressures in a reservoir are deter-minable by methods described by several are permitting the construction of a curve of oil saturation vs Pressure for any selected combination of initial interstitial water and hydrocarbon saturation (Fig I). This curve is then a description of equilibrium saturation conditions at any given pressure in a reservoir. Developing the above, details of saturation and flow permeability may thus be determined for any increment or portion of a well drainage area or reservoir. In this manner the effect of pressure differential (drawdown) may be incorporated into reservoir and well drainage considerations. It is pointed out that this method thus makes use of no-drawdown equilibrium production data, superimposing a draw-hwn effect upon them. It also assumes that net flow conditions in any considered increment of reservoir are not materially altered by the entrance of fluids from other increments into them, but approach equilibrium for the existing pressure and saturation (i.e., each increment behaves in more or less independent fashion, dependent largely upon the equilibrium considerations mentioned above)

Jan 1, 1948

By B. M. Larsen, T. E. Brower

INTRODUCTION THIS discussion is based on statistical manipulation and evaluation of operating data from several commercial blast furnaces which include rather wide variations in practice. We are concerned here mainly with the effect of manganese on sulphur elimination under operating conditions in commercial blast furnaces, but this effect can be outlined more clearly by including certain other variables such as silicon in iron and slag basicity, which are all in part interrelated. Real progress in understanding all of the smelting-zone reactions in this process requires more laboratory studies of slagmetal melts similar to those in the blast furnace, with careful control of oxygen pressure. Such experimental work is very difficult, however, and in the meantime, with the present scarcity of more fundamental data, such statistical trends and correlations as can be obtained from commercial furnace operating records may help in choosing laboratory test conditions as well as adding to our knowledge of operating procedures. We do not know just why the furnace data are apparently so irregular that statistical treatment of large numbers is needed to obtain accurate trends. It is .partly caused, no doubt, by the many simultaneous variables present, but there are perhaps also such factors as: (I) the continual swings up and down so characteristic of the process; (2) difficulty of accurate sampling of co-existing phases, as well as (3) the presence of both equilibrium and rate factors as a result of the fast driving of the process, In desulphurization, for example, the flow of thin layers of slag and metal over solid coke surfaces, plus the contact between droplets of iron falling through the slag layer in the hearth, would lead one to expect a close approach to equilibrium, On the other hand, most of the critical part of sulphur removal may occur in a short time and distance below the tuyeres with perhaps an accompanying decrease in oxygen pressure and the concurrent reduction of much of the silicon and manganese, so its degree of approach to equilibrium may be quite variable. PROBABLE CHEMISTRY OF DESULPHURIZATION Since there is little evidence that sulphur atoms in the iron solution are associated to any appreciable extent in molecules such as MnS, the transfer from slag to metal and back again can be written:* [(FeS) -, [FeS],[I] hence the following reactions seem most probable in the slag phase, (FeS) + (CaO) = (CaS) + (FeO), [2] and, (FeS) + (MnO) ;:2 (MnS) + (FeO). [31]

Jan 1, 1948

By E. DeGolyer

(San Franciso Meeting, September, 1915) I. INTRODUCTION THE Furbero oil field lies in the Gulf coastal plain of Mexico between the important ports of Tampico and Vera Cruz and about one-third of the distance between the two points from the latter (Lat. 20° 22&apos; N., 97° 30&apos; W. Gren.). It is in the State of Vera Cruz, about 14 miles west by south of the village of Papantla in the canton of the same name, and is the most southern of the developed oil fields of the Tampico-Tuxpam region being a distance of 50 miles south by east from the Potrero del Llano field and 42 miles in the sane direction from the Alamo field. The field has been developed by the Oil Fields of Mexico Co. and is in the midst of a large block of lands owned or leased by then. Communication is through the port of Tuxpam with which it is connected by a narrow-gauge railway and 6-in. pipe line some 52 miles in length. This field is of more than ordinary interest since it represents a type of oil deposit hitherto unknown. So far as I am aware, no other commercially valuable deposit of oil is known to occur under conditions of accumulation similar to those found here. The igneous nature of the so-called `sand&apos; encountered in drilling was not recognized until a number of wells had been drilled; and it was not until recently. that the geological relations of the sill or laccolith, which gives rise to the accumulation of oil, were known and the so-called `anticline&apos; was known to be, in part at least, the result of igneous intrusion. Geological surveys in this general region were made in 1900-1901 by W. H. Dalton and in 1907-1909 by P. C. A. Stewart, F. W. Moon, Leonard V. Dalton, and Dr. Max Muhlberg. More recent surveys have been made, however; under the direction of the author, by E. L. Ickes, B. C. Belt, B. Hartley, and Harve Loon-us. Notes of the earlier examinations were not available with the exception of the report by Dr. Muhlberg who apparently first recognized the true nature of the Furbero intrusion. This paper is indebted to his work and that. of the more recent surveys for much of the detail regarding stratigraphy and to Messrs. Percy Furber and Arthur C. Payne, President and General manager of the Oil Fields of Mexico Co. for permission to publish, and for much of the in-

Jan 9, 1915

By Alexander Bowie

In many places throughout the Western mountain plateau regions of the United States coal beds in place have been burned over very extensive areas, the fire evidently originating on the nakedly exposed outcrop of the coal bed and gradually burning its way into the bed for considerable distances under very heavy cover. The surface evidences of the burned-out coal beds are seen in the calcined and discolored rocks overlying the places of the outcrops. The greater the mass of the burned coal the higher the results of its combustion can be seen in the overlying strata. I have noted many instances of this condition in the States of South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexipo, and Arizona. In the lignite fields of Dakota and Wyoming I noted stretches of level country many square miles in extent where the surface rooks were roasted and vitrified by the burning of a great bed of lignite lying nearly level and with a light cover; this is probably the most favorable natural condition for the burning out of a coal bed. The less the depth of the rock covering overlying the coal bed, the better the chance for a continuous supply of air to the fire; but when the coal bed dips heavily into the ground, or even if level, if it passes under a hill or mountain which gives the bed a heavy covering of strata, the fire has more chances of being extinguished from natural causes than in the first condition described. The distance which a crop fire may extend into a coal field is very much influenced by the dip, the thickness of the coal bed, and the nature of the rock covering immediately overlying it. In reasoning on this subject, it would seem logical to assume in the case of a coal-bed cropping at the base of a hill and dipping into it, with an extensive drainage surface above the crop line, that a crop fire would be promptly extinguished by the caving in of the overlying strata and the precipitation of the rainfall from the drainage surface above the outcrop through the breaks formed in the caving strata. This consideration would be more or less effective according to the climate of the location and the nature of the overlying strata. In a humid climate where the rainfall was heavy the water from the natural precipitation alone would probably extinguish a crop fire before it could work its way very far under cover, but in an arid climate this preventive does not seem to be effective.

Jan 1, 1915