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By Richard L. Ashbrook, John F. Wallace

Several high-temperature eutectics of cobalt and nickel alloys were modified by small additions of selected elements. Thes-e alloys were compared to unmodified melts for microstructural variations. A few modified compositions were selected on the basis of structure and their tensile and stress-rupture behavior determined. The results of stress-rupture tests in air at 1800 F and room-temperature tensile tests of four high-temperature eutectics showed modification capable of producing substantial improvements in properties. The microstructures were altered and mechanical properties improved by: a.) dispersing a subordinate phase more uniformly throughout the matrix; b) replacing large continuous -network or platelike constituents with small equiaxed discontinuous phases; and c) by forming new, finely divided phases. tHE term "modification" is most commonly used to describe the refinement in microstructure of the Al-Si eutectic that occurs as a result of rapid cooling from the melt or on slow cooling after treatment with small amounts of sodium.1 "Modification" has also been used to describe the change from flake to spheroidal graphite in the austenite-graphite eutectic of cast iron.2 This change of graphite shape is accomplished by small additions of cerium or magnesium.3 Other systems have also been shown to be capable of modification, for example: Pb-Sn by copper;4 Al-Cu by sodium;5 Al-Mn by sodium;5 and Pb-Sb by aluminum.5 Although modification of Al-Si alloys and cast irons is usually accompanied by improved mechanical properties, a general definition of modification has been suggested to include the effect of small quantities of impurity elements on the microstructures of all eutectic alloys, regardless of the effect on the mechanical properties.6 In this paper, the term "modification" is employed in a broad sense to include the formation of third phases or even the supplanting of one of the binary eutectic phases by a third phase. The mechanism of modification, as for any solidification phenomenon, must be considered primarily in terms of nucleation and growth. Although both nuclea-tion and growth mechanisms are required to explain all the phenomena observed in connection with the solidification of modified eutectics, various investigators have usually favored one or the other.7"16 It has been shown that modification of a binary eutectic can be effected by addition of a solute element that has greatly different distribution coefficients or k values in the two phases of the eutectic. Under these conditions, differences in the temperatures at the solid-liquid interfaces of the two phases retard the growth of one phase with respect to the other.4 It has also been shown that increased undercooling favors a transition from a rodlike eutectic to a globular eutectic.17 A mechanism proposed for the transition from lamellar to rodlike eutectics depends on the concept of constitutional super cooling.18 The modification of eutectic alloys may be of interest for high-temperature service as well as at room temperature. Although "high-temperature eutectic alloys" may appear to be a contradiction in terms, many eutectic systems, including those studied in this work, have melting points in excess of 2400°F. One of the mechanisms by which high-temperature alloys are strengthened is dispersion of a relatively brittle phase such as an oxide, carbide, or an inter-metallic compound throughout a ductile matrix. For a given volume fraction of dispersed phase, strength is increased by decreasing the size and spacing of the dispersed particles.19'20 Furthermore, room-temperature ductility may also be increased by changing the shape of a brittle dispersed phase from platelike to equiaxed or spheroidal.8 Overaging and redissolving of the secondary phase limit the maximum temperature to which precipitation-hardened alloys can be used. However, in a binary eutectic system, both phases coexist up to the melting point. Although all eutectic structures are not completely stable,21 a dispersion-hardened cast high-temperature alloy might result if a fine distribution of one of the eutectic phases could be obtained during solidification. An additional reason for interest in eutectic alloys is their excellent castability.22 Since eutectic alloys, like pure metals, freeze at a single temperature rather than over a range of temperatures, their castability is superior to solid-solution alloys with long liquidus to solidus ranges. The purpose of this research was to study the effects of small solute additions on the microstructure and mechanical properties of a number of high-melting-point eutectic compositions.

Jan 1, 1967

By Robert Ammon

The milling practice at Mascot, at present, consists of dry crushing to % in., jigging, fine grinding, and flotation. The ore arrives at the mill from two mines, No. 1 mine shaft being located in the mill proper, and No. 2 mine shaft being situated about 2000 ft. east of the mill. No. 2 mine is served by a coarse-crushing plant and aerial tramway to the mill bins. In jigging the No. 2 mine ore, 50 per cent. of the mill feed is rejected by the jigs as a jig tailing ranging from 5/8 in. to 10 mesh; the balance of this ore, after removing a jig concentrate, is ground to flotation feed. In jigging No. 1 mine ore, approximately 80 per cent. of the mill feed is rejected as a coarse jig tailing, and the balance is ground to flotation feed without the removal of a jig concentrate. The difference in the treatment is due to the fact that No. 2 mine ore carries a higher content of zinc than that from No. 1 mine. Of the total concentrates produced, 30 per cent. is made on jigs and 70 per cent. by flotation. At present, 1350 tons of No. 2 ore and 800 tons of No. 1 ore are treated each 24 hours. The recoveries for a typical week are as follows: Heads.......................... 3.55 Jig concentrates................ 61.30 Jig tails......................... 0.80 Flotation concentrates........... 60.60 Flotation tails................... 0.09 Extraction..................... 86.50 The associated minerals are a straw-colored sphalerite, dolomite, calcite, pyrite, quartz, and a small amount of greenockite, which occurs as a stain and sometimes small crystals along with sphalerite, but is comparatively rare. Pyrite is present in small quantities, usually less than 0.5 per cent.; quartz occurs in bands a few inches thick. A complete analysis of the ore is as follows: PEr Cent. Per Cent. Calcium carbonate.............. 48.11 Zinc sulfide.................... 5.43 Magnesium carbonate........... 35.36 Cadmium sulfide............... Nil Silica.......................... 8.73 Lead sulfide................... Nil Alumina....................... 1.04 Iron oxide...................... 1.33 Total....................... 100.00

Jan 1, 1925

By W. L. Hill, W. H. Armiger, S. D. Gooch

The physical properties, chemical behavior under thermal treatment, and fertilizer value of fluorine-containing pseudowavellite (hydrous calcium aluminum phosphate) that occurs as phosphate clay admixed with quartz sand in an extensive deposit near Bartow, Fla., were determined by experiments in laboratory, pilot-plant, and greenhouse. When the mineral was heated at 500°C, 80 pct of the phosphorus became citrate soluble. The heated product, however, deteriorates markedly under moist conditions such as obtain in the soil.

Jan 1, 1950

By C. S. Barrett

W. Hofmann, J. Ziegler, and H. Hanemann—Having dealt with the same alloys in the winter 1941 to 1942, we want to give a short report on the generating of the hexagonal kappa phase by deforming the supersaturated alpha phase, which we then observed. This work was delivered as a Doctor of Engineering dissertation to the Technical University of Berlin by J. Ziegler in 1942. It still exists in two copies, somewhat damaged, a brief publication of it having been issued in Fiat-Review. Our work was started from the alloy Tombasil with 4.5 to 5 pct Si, 14.5 to 14 pct Zn, the rest Cu. Torpedo propellers were die cast from this alloy in Germany during the war. In order to improve this alloy, annealing was tried. By this treatment the alloy became at the same time harder and more brittle. A further research of this process was made in the Got-tingen University30 and the "Institut fÜr Metallkunde" of the Technical University of Berlin. It soon was apparent that the Cu-Si diagram at our disposal15,31,32 would not fit the observations. For this reason the pith of the matter became from then on the Cu-Si system. At that time we did not know of Smith's* and Andersen'sm latest diagrams. We first knew of them from Dr. Barrett's publication. Twenty-two alloys containing 2 to 11 pct Si were melted in a nitrogen atmosphere and generally homogenized for 2 to 4 hr at 800 °C. Part of the samples were then annealed at 700°, 600° and 500°. Annealing was followed by quenching in water. The phases corresponding to the various temperatures were identified by X-ray and microscopy. The Debye-Scherrer photographs generally were made of filings. The latter were produced after the last anneal of the samples, then equally annealed another 30 min in evacuated glass tubes and quenched in water. In the region of concentrations examined, the Cu-Si phases already known to us were observed: alpha, kappa (then called beta by us), gamma. By hot exposing an alloy of 7.69 pct Si at 800" and 750°,

Jan 1, 1951

By J. A. B. Forster

The operations of the Electrolytic Zinc Co. of Australasia Ltd. involve the preliminary roasting of zinc concentrate from Broken Hill, New South wales, at a number of acid-making centers on the Australian mainland. The partially roasted material is shipped to the Tasmanian plant where it was formerly re-roasted prior to leaching,' but this practice was gradually abandoned in favor of the flotation of leach residue for the recovery of a concentrate containing about 22 pct sulphide sulphur and known as secontlary or Risdon concentrate.2 This change, together with increased zinc production, called for new furnaces at Risdon for the roasting of 10-50 tonst of secondary concentrcite and 90 tons of new concentrate per day. The war situation made it imperative that construction be commenced without delay and to save time it was decided to base the design on that of Skinner type furnaces which had been built in South Australia twenty years earlier. This involved some sacrifice of desirable features but did not prevent the incorporation of provisions which had enabled small Herreshoff type furnaces to roast secondary concentrate autogenously. The roasting rate in existing furnaces was 10-12 Ib sulphide sulphur per sq ft of hearth area per day, and eleven hearths, 20 ft in diam, were provided in the two new furnaces in anticipation that they would prove capable of the autogenous roasting of 130-140 tons of concentrate per day from 28-29 pct sulphur down to 4.5-5 pct, with an oxidation rate of 11-11.5 lh S/S per sq ft of hearth area per day. It was soon realized, when the first of the furnaces went into operation, that a much better performance than this might be given, and the purpose of this paper is to show how a treatment rate of 100 tons per furnace day, and oxidation rates approaching 15 lb S/S per sq ft per day have been reached. Furnace Design General specifications for the design were based on the results of experience with several other types of furnace and on the special operating conditions

Jan 1, 1950

By Oliver Bowles

PRICES of quartz sold in the United States in 1938 ranged from $1.15 to $36,000 a ton. This startling variation was due simply to the differences between glass sand and rock - crystal, materials that are virtually the same in composition. It illustrates the complexities in qualities, uses, and values of industrial minerals. It is generally stated that mineral deposits are exhaustible resources which can never be replaced when depleted. This statement is no longer true with respect to certain industrial minerals now recovered in increasing quantities from that most inexhaustible of all sources of supply, the ocean. Salt has long been obtained from sea water, particularly on the Pacific Coast, and reference was made a year ago to the large bromine recovery plant at Wilmington, N. C. Now the Westvaco Chlorine Products Corp. is operating a large plant at Newark, Calif., having a capacity sufficient to recover daily from the ocean raw materials that will produce 60 tons of various magnesium products. Lime is used to precipitate the magnesia from salt-water bittern. The products are chiefly magnesium carbonate for chemical uses, periclase and other refractories, and oxychloride cement for flooring.

Jan 1, 1939

By Willis H. Carrier

Particular interest in the ventilation of deep mines, especially those in South Africa, has been created by a very complete system of cooling of the world's deepest mine, the Turf shaft of the Robinson Deep in Johannesburg. The writer visited this mine in January, 1936, and again in 1937. During these visits and subsequently, a considerable part of the theory involved in rock cooling in tunnels was developed and this has been checked by practical observations of the rates of rock cooling made within mines. The purpose of this paper is to set forth the method of attack of the mine problem. The cooling or air conditioning of mines by the use of mechanical refrigeration was not wholly newl-5 when the Robinson Deep installation was made. The first mine to be cooled was the Morro Velho mine, in Brazil. The first installation in this mine was put into operation in December 1920, the refrigerant being ammonia.5 The surface cooling gave considerable benefit but it proved inadequate as greater depths were reached, therefore in 1929 two centrifugal refrigerating machines were installed at the 6000-ft. level. These were used in conjunction with the surface cooling system to furnish additional cooling at the lower levels. This later installation used Carrene as a refrigerant. This nonflammable refrigerant, having a boiling point of 104" at sea level, insured reasonable safety, since all parts of the machine operated at subatmospheric pressure. Very favorable reports have been received on the effectiveness of this installation, but no recent data are available. An interesting feature of that plant is that the condenser water is cooled by spraying it into the exhaust air from the mine at the base of the ventilation upcast, which permits the water to be cooled within a few degrees of the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the upcast, and the only water that has to be supplied for condensing purposes is that lost by evaporation, or about 0.5 per cent of the volume circulating through the condenser. This plan affords an ideal means for the removal of the heat load from the refrigerating system, and of course also from the mine itself. In many mines, however, especially those in South Africa, there is no

Jan 1, 1940

By Willis H. Carrier

Particular interest in the ventilation of deep mines, especially those in South Africa, has been created by a very complete system of cooling of the world's deepest mine, the Turf shaft of the Robinson Deep in Johannesburg. The writer visited this mine in January, 1936, and again in 1937. During these visits and subsequently, a considerable part of the theory involved in rock cooling in tunnels was developed and this has been checked by practical observations of the rates of rock cooling made within mines. The purpose of this paper is to set forth the method of attack of the mine problem. The cooling or air conditioning of mines by the use of mechanical refrigeration was not wholly newl-5 when the Robinson Deep installation was made. The first mine to be cooled was the Morro Velho mine, in Brazil. The first installation in this mine was put into operation in December 1920, the refrigerant being ammonia.5 The surface cooling gave considerable benefit but it proved inadequate as greater depths were reached, therefore in 1929 two centrifugal refrigerating machines were installed at the 6000-ft. level. These were used in conjunction with the surface cooling system to furnish additional cooling at the lower levels. This later installation used Carrene as a refrigerant. This nonflammable refrigerant, having a boiling point of 104" at sea level, insured reasonable safety, since all parts of the machine operated at subatmospheric pressure. Very favorable reports have been received on the effectiveness of this installation, but no recent data are available. An interesting feature of that plant is that the condenser water is cooled by spraying it into the exhaust air from the mine at the base of the ventilation upcast, which permits the water to be cooled within a few degrees of the wet-bulb temperature of the air entering the upcast, and the only water that has to be supplied for condensing purposes is that lost by evaporation, or about 0.5 per cent of the volume circulating through the condenser. This plan affords an ideal means for the removal of the heat load from the refrigerating system, and of course also from the mine itself. In many mines, however, especially those in South Africa, there is no

Jan 1, 1940

By Charles T. Van Winkle

Until the advent of the porphyry coppers and the introduction of flotation which soon followed, crushing and grinding for many years proceeded along somewhat stereotyped lines, without important alteration in type of machinery. For the finer crushing and grinding, stamps, rolls, and various patterns of Huntington and Chilean mills were in general use. Ball-mills were in use abroad, but owing to their small capacity and the high cost of screens and steel, they never obtained much footing in the United States. Tube-mills were first introduced into the crushing departments of cyanide plants when it was found that for crushing finer than 30-mesh other types of crushing machinery were not efficient. In order to crush with one pass, these mills were made 18 to 22 ft. (5.5 to 6.7 m.) in length. Pebbles were used as a grinding medium and the mills were lined with either silex blocks or fragments of quartz or flint pebbles set in cement. While the cylindrical tube pebble-mill had been used to some extent in small installations of concentration mills, the first instance of its use on a large scale was at the concentrating plant of the Miami Copper Co., where 8-ft. by 22-in. (2.5-m. by 55.9-cm.) Hardinge mills were tried out against Chileans. The results of these experiments led to the gradual replacement of the Chilean by the Hardinge mill. Robert Franke published an article' describing the work done, comparing the two types of mills. At the same time, according to Franke, a test was run using a 6-ft. (1.8-m.) Hardinge ball-mill as a substitute for rolls for intermediate crushing on 1/2-in. material. According to Franke, this mill was soon discarded, since it was found that to obtain the desired product the mill must be limited in capacity. The Miami Copper Co. made no test with other types of ball- or pebble-mills. Following this example, others installed the conical type; and when the Inspiration Consolidated Copper Co. decided to build a concentrator, it adopted the conical mill. As the requirements for mills would be very large, it purchased manufacturing rights in the State of Arizona from the

Jan 1, 1918

By Robert Franke

In view of the prominence which the conical mill has attained in the fine-crushing field within the few years since its introduction, the following comparison with its more mature forerunner, the Chilean mill, based on extensive tests, is submitted in the interest of the milling profession. Soon after designing the concentrating plant of the Miami Copper Co. in 1909, the Hardinge conical mill made its appearance in the milling forum. Its possibility as a suitable crushing device for the plant was well recognized, but in view of the lack of commercial demonstration, at the time, as to capacity, efficiency for desired product, and the still more uncertain factors of cost of maintenance and power consumption, it was deemed that the immediate adoption of this machine throughout the plant would be a hazardous undertaking. For these reasons it was decided to equip the majority of the immediately required units of the plant with Chilean mills, the fine-crushing proficiencies of which were better known, and one section with Hardinge mills, to serve as a test unit for the guidance of future installations and replacements. Thereby, after 1.5 years' operation with both types of mills, a thorough test as to metallurgical efficiency and cost economy has been obtained. The conical mill used in these tests is the 8-ft. Hardinge pebble mill, having a cylinder 22 in. in length. The cylindrical portion of this mill is lined with cast-iron liner plates, and the conical extensions with silex bricks bound together by cement. Each liner plate carries a projecting lifter, the function of which is to increase the height of drop of the lifted material. Danish No. 5 pebbles, obtained from the coast deposits of Denmark, are used for the grinding charge. The Chilean mill used is a fast-running, 3-roller, 6-ft. Saturn mill, with screens of 0.037-in. opening. The feed to these mills is the oversize of Callow screens having 0.029-in. openings, which follow rolls crushing to 0.5 in. For the ore of this mine, a moderately hard but very fissile schist,

Jan 1, 1914

By Chester A. Fulton

APATITE, the most abundant crystalline phosphate mineral, is found in igneous rocks and probably is the primary origin of all other phosphates, whether mineral or organic. Its chemical formula may be expressed as Ca5(Cl,F) (PO4) 3. The chlorine may be replaced almost entirely by the fluorine. It is found in large or small hexagonal prisms, usually of a vitreous luster and a green or red color, but also violet, white, or yellow. It is found largely as an accessory mineral in granitoid rocks. Its hardness is 4.5 to 5 and its specific gravity is about 3.2. There are many other phosphate minerals-for instance, amblygonite, autonite, collophane, lazulite, monazite, pyromorphite, torbenite, triphylite, turquoise, vivanite, wavellite-with base elements of calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminum, manganese, lead, cerium, lanthanum, lithium, or several of these in combination and with various amounts of water of crystallization. However, these phosphate minerals have but little value save as specimens for mineral collections, the exception perhaps being turquoise. While large deposits of igneous apatite are mined today for the production of fertilizers and chemicals, more than 90 pct of the world phosphate production is derived from secondary apatites, called phosphorites. These calcium (and magnesium, aluminum, and iron) phosphates have been formed in the alteration of sediments by solutions containing phosphoric acid. Such solutions have come from the weathering or leaching of igneous rocks containing apatite, bone deposits of prehistoric animals and marine life, or guano deposits (excreta of birds). These phosphorites are mostly alterations of phosphatic limestones that took place slowly over many years. Whether it is apatite or phosphorite that is being produced, it is known in the trade as "phosphate rock." The sedimentary phosphate deposits are of marine origin. Some, as laid down, were rich in phosphate or have become so by subsequent subaqueous action and have not been further enriched since emergence from the sea. Some were originally phosphatic limestones or marls from which calcium carbonate was dissolved away by waters containing carbon dioxide, in which calcium carbonate is much more soluble than

Jan 1, 1949

J. D. Fast and J. L. Meijering (Philips Research Laboratories, N. V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken, Eindhoven, Netherlands)— After the departure of our friend Dijkstra to the United States, investigations on the effect of alloying elements on the behavior of nitrogen in a iron were continued in Eindhoven. We too found internal friction curves with two separate peaks for iron containing nitrogen in addition to 0.5 atomic pct V or 0.5 atomic pct Mo. Our first publication on these investigations" appeared almost simultaneously with the paper now under discussion. At first sight our experimental results seem to be in harmony with their conclusions, but a closer examination reveals that in the case of the Fe-V-N alloy the abnormal peak is not controlled by one time of relaxation only. Whereas iron containing 0.5 atomic pct Mn or Mo absorbs an amount of nitrogen of about the same magnitude as that absorbed by pure iron under identical conditions, iron containing vanadium absorbs in addition one nitrogen atom for every vanadium atom. This last amount, far exceeding the first amount in the case under consideration, combines chemically with the vanadium and causes no internal friction. The "free" nitrogen in the vanadium alloy gives rise not only to a damping peak corresponding to that in pure iron but— due to the presence of VN particles in the metal—also to the abnormal peak at higher temperatures. The VN particles create interstitial sites around themselves where the free nitrogen atoms are bound much tighter than in the normal interstices. These abnormal interstices, therefore, will capture free nitrogen atoms rapidly, whereupon these give rise to the abnormal damping. The binding energy in the abnormal interstices is not the same for all, and with coarsening of the VN precipitate the distribution of these energies is displaced toward the side of stronger binding. This is deduced from a shift of the summit of the second peak toward higher temperatures (from 80" to 88°C in our experiments) caused by prolonged heating at 950°C. From the intermediate state where they cause the abnormal damping, the nitrogen atoms pass over rather rapidly into the fully precipitated state (iron

Jan 1, 1954

By Frank Firmstone

The furnace from which the brick here referred to were taken, was lined under my supervision and blown-in in May, 1902. It was 75 ft. high and 18 ft. in greatest diameter, and used coke to smelt a lean magnetic iron-ore. The lining was put in as follows:—First, blocks 14 in. long by 6 in. thick; second, 2 in. of loam; third, 13.5 in. of 9-in. fire-brick (one-and-ahalf brick wall) laid in English bond; fourth, red brick to within 2 in. of the iron shell; and fifth, 2 in. of slag-wool between the red brick and the shell. The brand of brick used has been known to me for over 20 years, and in my observation had always proved very durable, notably when used in a small furnace 50 k. high which treated the same magnetic. ore. On revisiting and examining the furnace in March, 1903, it was found that the whole of the lining of 14in. blocks at the top, and for an unknown distance (more than 20 ft.) below, had completely disappeared; and a few weeks later the 13.5-in. lining and the red brick at the top likewise vanished, and the furnace was blown out. N~twithstanding the complete failure of the lining higher up, measurements taken after blowing-out showed no unusual wear in the lower part of the furnace. The exact position in the furnace of the piece of brick-work used in the analysis, given below, is not known; but it came from between 30 and 40 ft. above the bottom. It had formed part of the 13.5-in. wall (no 14-in. brick remaining at that level) and consisted of parts of several bricks so firmly sintered together that fracture occurred indifferently through the joints and through the body of the brick. The joints could, however, be traced by a close examination. The surface which had been in contact with the material in the furnace was covered with a yellowish, translucent glaze, somewhat vesicular, and from

Jan 1, 1904

By Arthur S. Huey

AS the end of the collegiate year approaches, the problem of student employment again becomes acute. This subject divides itself into two phases: (1) employment prior to graduation and (2) employment following graduation. "Experience is the best teacher," according to the old adage, and the student needs all that he can get. He is afforded every opportunity to reap from his books the theories and principles of scientific and engineering practice, and occasionally he is privileged to make field trips to observe the practical side of the subject. But it is not enough for one to know the theory and to observe its application; it is also desirable for the student to get the feel of the tools during his training Such opportunities can only be afforded the student if the major companies cooperate with the universities in giving the student part-time and vacation work.

Jan 1, 1932

By Eugene Coste

Although some of the observers who first paid especial attention to the occurrences of oil and gas in the strata (such as Hunt in 1859, Andrews in 1861; Winchell in 1865, Mendelejeff in 1876, Höfer in 1876, Minshall in 1881, and I. C. White in 1883) seem to have been impressed with the fact that oil and gas deposits were connected with the disturbances in the rocks caused by their upheavalll yet, with the exception of Mendelejeff, and possibly Andrews, these observers do not appear to have understood what is really the one essential factor in the occurrence of oil and gas in the strata: viz., the faulting, uplifting, fracturing, fis-suring, and jointing always accompanying even slight rock disturbances, and in certain districts (petroliferous provinces)2 allowing solfataric hydrocarbon emanations to force their way up from the interior and to reach and impregnate the porous portions of sediments subjected to the disturbances. Instead of this simple explanation to account -for the observed connection between petroleum deposits and rock disturbances, most of the observers mentioned above, and many others who have foliowed them on the same lines since, have entirely reversed the problem. To them, instead of the dissemination of gases from fissures into the sediments, it presented the accumulation and concentration, according to anticlinal or other geologic structures, of oil and gas originally present throughout the whole mass of the strata where they were produced by the decomposition or distillation of organic remains. Whether this important problem involves accumulation from sources within the strata themselves, or infiltration and dissemination from outside sources, may be easily determined if all preconceived ideas are put aside and the established facts only are considered. Physical Facts Sedimentary strata are composed of alternate beds of shales, sandstones, and limestones, most of which are sufficiently close-grained to

Jan 1, 1915

By Eric R. Jette, Earl S. Greiner

The constitution of the iron-rich iron-nickel-silicon alloys at 600ºC. has been determined by X-ray crystal structure methods. If the results are represented isothermally by a conventional equilateral triangular plot, the single-phase solid solution (body-centered cubic structure) of the iron-rich alloys at 600°C. is bounded by four two-phase areas. Three three-phase areas separate the respective two-phase areas. Three of the phases in the polyphase areas have the same structures as the corresponding phases in the binary iron-nickel or iron-silicon alloys. There are two phases, however, that have not been reported previously and whose structures have been tentatively identified in the present investigation. The solid solubility limit of the iron-rich solid solution at 600°C. was determined by comparing the lattice constants of this body-centered cubic phase in the single and polyphase areas. It has been shown that the lattice constants of ternary alloys may be represented by surfaces whose distances above the ternary plot (representing atomic composition) are proportional to the lattice constants of the respective alloys. Then the intersections of the surface for the single-phase alloys with those for the corresponding phase in the polyphase alloys, at the respective temperatures, are the solid solubility limits of the single-phase alloys at these temperatures. The data of the present investigation were evaluated by this method, although by a system of orthographic projection it was possible to represent the three-dimensional model in two-dimensional diagrams. This investigation has shown that the solid solubility of nickel in the body-centered cubic phase of the iron-rich iron-nickel-silicon alloys at 600°C. changes from 3.7 weight per cent (Owen and Sulley) in the binary iron-nickel alloys to 5.0 per cent in the ternary alloys containing 4.8 per cent silicon. Further additions of silicon increase the solid solubility limit of nickel to 16.0 per cent at 12.6 per cent silicon. From this point the limit decreases to 9.5 per cent nickel at 15.5 per cent silicon and is, of course, zero at 15.3 per cent silicon in the binary iron-silicon alloys.

Jan 1, 1943

By Earl S. Greiner, Eric R. Jette

The constitution of the iron-rich iron-nickel-silicon alloys at 600ºC. has been determined by X-ray crystal structure methods. If the results are represented isothermally by a conventional equilateral triangular plot, the single-phase solid solution (body-centered cubic structure) of the iron-rich alloys at 600°C. is bounded by four two-phase areas. Three three-phase areas separate the respective two-phase areas. Three of the phases in the polyphase areas have the same structures as the corresponding phases in the binary iron-nickel or iron-silicon alloys. There are two phases, however, that have not been reported previously and whose structures have been tentatively identified in the present investigation. The solid solubility limit of the iron-rich solid solution at 600°C. was determined by comparing the lattice constants of this body-centered cubic phase in the single and polyphase areas. It has been shown that the lattice constants of ternary alloys may be represented by surfaces whose distances above the ternary plot (representing atomic composition) are proportional to the lattice constants of the respective alloys. Then the intersections of the surface for the single-phase alloys with those for the corresponding phase in the polyphase alloys, at the respective temperatures, are the solid solubility limits of the single-phase alloys at these temperatures. The data of the present investigation were evaluated by this method, although by a system of orthographic projection it was possible to represent the three-dimensional model in two-dimensional diagrams. This investigation has shown that the solid solubility of nickel in the body-centered cubic phase of the iron-rich iron-nickel-silicon alloys at 600°C. changes from 3.7 weight per cent (Owen and Sulley) in the binary iron-nickel alloys to 5.0 per cent in the ternary alloys containing 4.8 per cent silicon. Further additions of silicon increase the solid solubility limit of nickel to 16.0 per cent at 12.6 per cent silicon. From this point the limit decreases to 9.5 per cent nickel at 15.5 per cent silicon and is, of course, zero at 15.3 per cent silicon in the binary iron-silicon alloys.

Jan 1, 1943

By J. Fred Johnson

MORE ORE is mined in the Bingham District than in any other mining district in Utah. In addition to the open-pit operations of the Utah Copper Co., there have been, many large underground mines. Until recent years the principal production was from the Jordan and Commercial limestones, but in the last eight years valuable ore deposits have been developed in the so-called alphabetical or "A," "B," "C," and "D" limestones, mainly by the U. S. Smelting, Refining & Mining Co. The value of these developments has led the company just mentioned to acquire large holdings in the district and within the last year to install at the Niagara shaft a hoist capable of going to a vertical depth of 4000 ft., or 1800 ft. deeper than the present lowest level. Ore from Bingham has been the chief factor in enabling the

Jan 1, 1934

By Eugene A. Stephenson, Leon J. Pepperberg

The natural gas industry is essentially a byproduct of the oil industry. When first discovered the gas was usually regarded as a nuisance, and even when found immediately associated with oil, or suspected to be so, it was customary to blow it freely into the air, in the hope that gas would shortly be replaced by a flow of oil. The early methods of production,' transportation, and utilization were neither economical nor efficient; the chief value of gas was based on its use as a fuel, with no regard to (1) its effect. upon the oil with which it was associated, (2) its importance as a lifting agent, or (3) to its possibilities for the manufacture of byproducts. The spread of scientific research among major gas and oil companies, manufacturers, and academic groups, has gradually brought recognition of the fact that many of the technical problems bearing on production, transportation and utilization are common to both the gas and the oil industry. A few of the problems that have received serious study, and from which highly gratifying results have been obtained, are: (1) gas measurement, (2) oil well and gas well capacity tests, (3) elimination of field waste, (4) design of pipe lines and compressor stations, (5) extraction of constituents which might interfere with the normal flow of gas through the line, (6) control of reservoir pressure, (7) estimation of reserves of both oil and gas, (8) control of water encroachment, (9) measurement of factors which influence fluid movement through sands, (10) solubility of gases in oils, (11) effect of dissolved gases upon the properties of the solution. These investigations have demonstrated that almost every problem relating to oil production also involves some phase of natural gas engineering. During the past 15 years the use of experimental methods for the discovery and measurement of obscure, influencing factors, which cannot be determined purely by hydrodynamic or thermodynamic analyses, have contributed much towards the progress made in solving the problems of the oil and gas industries. Most of the experimental work on

Jan 1, 1934