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By C. P. Fiske

The pottery of the New Jersey Zinc Co. (of Pa.) is equipped to make three classes of refractories; namely, spelter vessels, spelter condensers, and high-grade fire-brick. The most important of these are the spelter vessels, on account of the extreme severity of the service which they must perform, necessitating great care in the selection of materials and in the whole process of manufacture. Next to the spelter vessels in importance come the condensers, as large numbers are used in the manufacture of spelter, and improvements in quality result in material decreases in working cost. While the fire-brick which form the laboratory, or high-temperature portion of the spelter furnaces, are placed at the foot of the list, they are nevertheless of much importance, since high quality will decrease the frequency of the always expensive shutdowns for repairs. To promote simplicity, the manufacture of these three products will be described separately in this paper, except in so far as materials and the crushing and handling system common to all are conccrned. Materials Bond Clay.—The bond clay used entirely at the Palmerton pottery is a St. Louis clay furnished by the Grand View Fire Clay Co. It is stored in a system of covered bins, and no attempt is made to weather it in the accepted sense of the term " weathering." Some years ago our clay was weathered before pugging, but we did not find the benefit sufficient to offset the additional handling and the loss of clay incurred. Furthermore, we believe that the rotting of the pugged mix (described later) accomplishes the same results to better advantage. That there is some action taking place in the clay while stored in the covered bins, however, is evidenced by an increase in volume which at times has caused damage to the retaining walls of the bins. We have at present a stock of bond clay weathering in the open, and when this is put into service an opportunity will be afforded for making comparisons with the clay as usually handled.

Jan 1, 1918

By James Kemp

IN earlier years, the custom prevailed of regarding the anthracite basins as cases of folding with slight development of faulting. Folding is so pronounced and, in the eastern and western Middle Fields, at times so violent, that the inference was a natural one and led to the widespread impression that practically all the disturbances of the seams could be explained in this way. The cross-sections-and maps prepared forty or more years ago for the Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, by Mr. Ashburner under Prof. J. P. Lesley, exhibit little else than folds.1 So far as I can discover faults fail in the charts, except in one small case in the Henry Colliery near Plainsville on the outskirts of Wilkes-Barre. Some years ago, while spending a day or two in Wilkes-Barre, under the guidance of R. V. Norris, I looked over some recent and accurate cross-sections of a number of the large collieries and was deeply impressed with the peculiar behavior of some of the seams and the intervening shales. Thus, a seam might present a small, more or less overturned fold, rising 30 to 50 ft. (9 to 15m.) above its general course, and yet the movement would be taken up in the overlying shales, so as hardly to be noticeable in the seams next above or below. These and similar anomalies, especially when shown with the accuracy of engineer's surveys, possess great scientific and practical interest, bearing as .they do, not alone on coal mining, but on theoretical geology and the actual behavior of strata under great compressive stresses. In preparation for the semicentennial meeting of the Institute, an, effort was therefore made to secure some of the most interesting sections for presentation to the members. The collection of illustrations here shown is mainly due to, Mr. Douglas Bunting of the local committee, to whom and to the contributing companies acknowledgments are due.

Jan 1, 1922

By M. J. Marcinkowski, R. M. Fisher

The flow stress-grain size relationship has been determined at room temperature in both a disordered and a fully ordered FeCo for plastic strains up to 30 pct. The results are in agreement with a Hall-Petch relation of the type given by Of =a,+kd-1/2 where of is the flour stress and a, increases mono-tonically with increasing strain to a maximum value which is much higher for the ordered than for the disordered alloy. The slope, k, is found to increase FOLLOWING the original work of Halll and petch relating the effect of grain size to the lower yield stress of iron and steel, it has been generally found that the yield stress oy.s. of polycrystalline metals with strain to a maximum and then decrease for both ordered and disordered alloys. However, k for the ordered alloy is in general higher than that for the disordered alloy and the critical strain for k max somewhat larger. All of these observations can be satisfactorily accounted for quantitatively and in some cases semiquantitatively by using a slip band-grain boundary intersection model, and by taking note of the fact that, in general, moss slip, while quite common in the disordered alloy, is extremely difficult in the ordered alloy. obeys a relation of the form oy.s.=a0+kd-1/2 [1] where a, and k are constants and d is the mean grain diameter. For convenience, and in accord with prevailing custom, Eq. [I] will be referred to simply as the Petch relation. Tjerkstra3 and Armstrong, Codd, Douthwaite, and petch4 showed that the flow stress af of iron or steel measured at strains of up to at least 20 pct also obeyed a relationship of the type given by Eq. (11. The latter investigators have also shown that Eq. [I] applies to fcc and hcp metals and alloys.

Jan 1, 1965

By Carl Belser

This paper summarizes the data on the oil-shale deposits of western Colorado, Utah and Wyoming. It is based on published reports by the U. S. Geological Survey, on the results of core drilling and sampling by the Bureau of Mines, on the drill cuttings from the Genera1 Petroleum well, on a recent unpublished report by the Geological Survey on the geology of Naval Oil-Shale Reserves No. I and No' 21 and from information supplied by geologists of private companies who have investigated the Green River formation. The paper also contains a revised estimate of the grade and tonnage of minable thicknesses of oil shale of western Colorado. Introduction The oil shales of the Green River formation of Colorado, Utah and Wyoming comprise an important natural resource for the production of synthetic liquid fuels. The oil shale in western Colorado generally is more amenable to exploitation, apparently richer, and probably more persistent than in Utah or Wyoming. Work is now being done by the Bureau of Mines near Rifle, Cola. to ascertain the best procedures for mining the oil shale, producing shale oil from the oil shale, and converting the oil into more salable products. As a part of this program, holes were drilled and cores were taken of the oil shale on Naval Oil-Shale Reserve No. I. In addi- tion, drill cuttings were obtained from a well drilled through the Green River formation by the General Petroleum Co. about 18 miles northerly of the Naval Oil-Shale Reserve. Geology During middle Eocene time a broad, shallow body of water, now called Uinta Lake, covered northwestern Colorado and east-central Utah; a similar lake, known as Gosiute Lake, was in southwestern Wyoming Each of these contemporary lakes was bounded by high hills; the drainage was to the south. The Green River formation was laid down as sediments in the bottoms of these lakes. It is 3000 ft thick and has been divided into the following four members:

Jan 1, 1949

By Thomas MacFarlane

I. INTRODUCTION. AMONG the industrial enterprises which have, from time to time, been undertaken in our Dominion, few have been more uniformly unsuccessful than those which have had for their object the development of our mineral resources. These resources have not been regarded as insignificant. On the contrary, it is supposed that we possess in our ore deposits something more than mere points of mineralogical interest. Some people are enthusiastic enough to believe that our mineral wealth will yet occasion the establishment in our backwoods of happy and industrious communities, causing, in fact, our wilderness to blossom as the rose. These enthusiasts do not shut their eyes to the serious obstacles which at every stage interfere with the carrying out of mining enterprises in this country, and which tempt one to believe that no such enterprise can ever be conducted to a desirable end, but they entertain the conviction that as our capitalists, miners, and technologists reach the years of discretion, and handle our mines in an economical, vigorous, and judicious manner, and as our statesmen become alive to the necessity of fostering, without extremely protecting, our metallurgical industries, mines and furnaces will gradually prosper, and so develop as to become a tower of strength to our agricultural, manufacturing, and mercantile interests. The fact that our past experience does not generally justify such glowing anticipations makes one all the more anxious to put on record the history of a successful mine, such as the Silver Islet has, on the whole, been. My connection with its discovery and early development was a very intimate one, and I propose in this paper to sketch its history and character, and sum up the amount of silver it has so far yielded. An additional reason for the appearance of this paper is that the Transactions of the Institute contain only a few references to the Silver Islet Mine. Although this mine is reported successful, we have, of course, no guarantee that it will not fall a victim to the same influences which have

Jan 1, 1880

By James P. Kimball

THE object of the present memoir is to put on record some practical experiments by the writer in smelting a silicious native magnetite with no other flux than the silicates of its own gangue: This work was undertaken in the spring of 1878 for Messrs. Naylor & Co., of Boston, to whom I am indebted for the privilege of here communicating its results, these having hitherto only been simply announced.* So far as I am aware these are the first instances of the kind in this country that non-calcareous; or rather non-carbonated, magnetites have successfully been used strictly alone as self-fluxing ores in the blast furnace; that is, without the addition of calcareous flux in the form either of limestone, quicklime, calcareous ore, or basic (calcareous). slag. Previous to the spring of 1878, when the Chateaugay magnetic ore was first brought to my notice, its use had been limited to Catalan forges, after "separation" at the ore bed. The blooms and billets made from it in the several forges of Messrs. Weed & Williams, and of Mr. Williams, were well known in the trade as among the best in the market. The Chateaugay ore beds proving of great magnitude, and the ore exceptionally low in phosphoric acid, it commended itself for blast-furnace purposes to Messrs. Naylor & Co., who employed nee to blow-in the charcoal furnace at Pittsford, Vt., on this ore in the spring of 1878., a previous trial of this ore in the same furnace in the fall of 1877 having proved abortive. This was therefore the first time that Chateaugay ore was successfully smelted in a blast furnace, although since well known as a blast-furnace ore possessing superior and exceptional qualities. The Pittsford furnace, although rebuilt in 1844, and subsequently improved by the former owner, the late J. Prichard, is one of the few furnaces of the old type with open breast (Sumpfofen) still active in this country. Its improvements on furnaces of the period, * Bulletin American Iron and Steel Association, XII, 1878, 132, 156.

Jan 1, 1881

By Gustaf Ising

For relative gravity measurements, the author in 1918 described an instrument1 of which the essential part consists of a highly astatized, standing pendulum turning about a horizontal elastic axis. This type of instrument has been used recently in practical field work, therefore a description of its principle and technical development is given herein. Part I, describing the principle, is a direct translation of the original Swedish paper.l Part II gives an account of the practical elaboration of the instrument, together with some description of measurements performed. I. Principle of Using Astatized Pendulums1 In order to reduce the trouble and waste of time attending the use of ordinary pendulums in measuring the force of gravity, various instruments of another type have been suggested for relative determinations, as a rule arranged in such a way that the attraction of the earth on a certain body or mass of fluid is balanced by elastic force from a spring or a shut-in mass of gas. A change in the force of gravity is then made manifest as a change in the position of equilibrium of the body, in that the deformation of the spring (or compression of the gas) is changed. With such instruments there are, however, great difficulties in keeping the elastic force constant or its variation known with sufficient exactitude, because of elastic after-working, influence of temperature, and so on. The author suggests for relative determinations of gravity another type of instrument, in which two directional forces (control coefficients) rather than two forces are compared with one another. By "directional force" or "control coefficient" is meant that quantity in a rotatable system that, multiplied by the angle of deflection, indicates the moment counteracting the deflection. In this way it will be possible greatly to reduce the influence of the elastic after-working, which in instruments with spring devices acts so disturbingly. The instrument is made with a rotatable system arranged in such a way that the total control coefficient acting upon it, is composed

Jan 1, 1940

By Gustaf Ising

For relative gravity measurements, the author in 1918 described an instrument1 of which the essential part consists of a highly astatized, standing pendulum turning about a horizontal elastic axis. This type of instrument has been used recently in practical field work, therefore a description of its principle and technical development is given herein. Part I, describing the principle, is a direct translation of the original Swedish paper.l Part II gives an account of the practical elaboration of the instrument, together with some description of measurements performed. I. Principle of Using Astatized Pendulums1 In order to reduce the trouble and waste of time attending the use of ordinary pendulums in measuring the force of gravity, various instruments of another type have been suggested for relative determinations, as a rule arranged in such a way that the attraction of the earth on a certain body or mass of fluid is balanced by elastic force from a spring or a shut-in mass of gas. A change in the force of gravity is then made manifest as a change in the position of equilibrium of the body, in that the deformation of the spring (or compression of the gas) is changed. With such instruments there are, however, great difficulties in keeping the elastic force constant or its variation known with sufficient exactitude, because of elastic after-working, influence of temperature, and so on. The author suggests for relative determinations of gravity another type of instrument, in which two directional forces (control coefficients) rather than two forces are compared with one another. By "directional force" or "control coefficient" is meant that quantity in a rotatable system that, multiplied by the angle of deflection, indicates the moment counteracting the deflection. In this way it will be possible greatly to reduce the influence of the elastic after-working, which in instruments with spring devices acts so disturbingly. The instrument is made with a rotatable system arranged in such a way that the total control coefficient acting upon it, is composed

Jan 1, 1940

By G. Sachs, E. J. Ripling, J. J. Lynch

INTRODUCTION General IT is general practice to evaluate the strength properties of a particular metal from its stress-strain [(S1 - E1]) curve obtained by means of a conventional tension test. Such a stress-strain curve, Fig I, illustrates two important properties of a metal, its ability to strain harden, and its ability to withstand a certain limiting stress, the "fracture stress,"[ (s'r)], and a certain limiting strain, the "ductility" [(e1)], before it fails by separation. These two fracturing characteristics are the coordinates of the point of fracture in Fig I. In the case of a metal which necks in a tension test, both the fracture stress and the ductility (measured in a tension test) are dependent upon (a) the shape of the neck and (b) average values of the stresses and strains over the cross section at the moment of fracture. However, for the purpose of this investigation, these average quantities, rather than the actual values, may be considered for reasons of simplicity. It appears that the conclusions also hold true if the analysis were carried out for actual values of fracture stress and ductility at the locus of failure. In this paper, the effects of straining (at room temperature) by various methods on [ ] the above metal characteristics, which were determined by subsequent tension tests will be discussed. According to our present knowledge, any such prestraining results in a stress-strain curve (in subsequent testing by tension), Fig 2, the general shape, or flow characteristics, of which can be derived from the original stress-strain curve of the unstrained metal minus a certain portion exhausted by the initial straining. This phenomenon is called strain hardening, and may be measured by the magnitude of the cut-off, or the "effective strain," from which the new curve must start in order to coincide in its plastic branch with the original stress-strain curve.

Jan 1, 1948

By Thomas Fraser, Abreu Alvaro

THE work described in this paper was carried out under the sponsorship of the Foreign Economics Administration and in cooperation with the Departamento Nacionál da Produção Mineral, Rio de Janeiro. The project was undertaken to obtain complete data on the variations in washability of coal to be used for coke manufacture in the steel industry and to determine the economy of preliminary hand-sorting operations. The coal-producing industry of Brazil is in that pioneering stage in which operat¬ing practices and methods are just being developed. Increased wartime demand for fuel, coincident with a drastic curtailment of foreign supplies due to lack of shipping facilities, has put a tremendous pressure on the national industry to furnish more coal. Under this incentive, production facilities are being expanded and new methods of operation are being tested. Such changes are being developed both by improvement of existing methods that originated in the field and by adaptation and modification of methods introduced from the United States and Europe. These mining condi¬tions and mining practices in Brazil are typical of what the American mining engineer will find in many instances when he goes pioneering into the developing coal fields of the Southern Hemisphere. The producing coal fields of Brazil are all in the southern states of that country. The coal measures are in a band roughly paralleling the coast and extending in a generally southwesterly direction from northern São Paulo through the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul to near the Uruguayan border in the vicinity of Bajé. The accompanying map1 (Fig. I shows the general location of these fields and also the principal routes of movement of both national and imported coal in a late pre-war year (1940). Statistical data on production by states up -to that year are given in Table I. Rio Grande do Sul is still the largest producer among the coal states; but wartime

Jan 1, 1946

By D. A. Dahlstrom

WITHIN the past decade, certain economic, legal, and technological changes have intensified the necessity for an efficient classifier or deslimer of particles at and below the 200-mesh point. First, mechanization of mining has increased the percentage of clays, silts, refuse, and high-ash material in the run-of-mine coal. Second, many washing plants must rely on smaller percentages of fresh make-up water because of shortages, economic factors, or legal restrictions on waste water disposal. Finally, the crushing of middlings and coarse refuse plus the trends toward the finer sizes in sales has further increased the amount of fines produced per ton of mine-run coal. A joint consequence of these circumstances has been the augmented percentage and build-up of —200-mesh material in the finer coal fractions and tipple circulating water. This results in the following disadvantages to the operator: (1) Higher ash percentages in the fine coal caused in large measure by the greater ash content of the —200-mesh material, (2) more difficult or expensive recovery of the fine coal from plant slurries, (3) lower filtration, drainage, and drying rates caused chiefly by lower permeability and the greater surface exposed per unit mass of the finer particles, (4) greater difficulty of beneficiatiing the fine coal because of lowered equipment efficiency and the partial "coating-out" of the —200-mesh fraction on the coarser coal particles. Obviously some cheap but effective fine-size classifier must be developed to aid in solving the above problems. To eliminate the generally unwanted —200-mesh fraction from coal slurries, several methods are in use. Probably the most popular with coal operators is the settling cone wherein the larger particles settle downward to the apex of an inverted cone while the slimes and fines are carried upward by vertical fluid currents caused by the overflow of the bulk of the water at the outer rim. The main advantage of the unit is the low initial and operating cost since no moving parts are involved. Disadvantages are primarily low capacity per square foot or floor space and the loss of good coal in the overflow above the 100-mesh size due to localized, high-velocity gradients and nonuniform, fluid-flow patterns, especially at high loadings. Also, when high slime concentrations are present, desliming efficiency is severely injured.', ' Other methods employed are the drag and spiral classifiers and the hydroseparator.' These involve mechanical separations achieved by moving parts and naturally result in higher initial costs. As they are all based on the settling velocity of the particles at the mesh of separation under operating conditions, area requirements are again large per gallon of throughput if they are to classify at the 200-mesh point. Usually the selection is made to operate at a higher throughput and thus sacrifice some coarser coal in the slime overflow. Cyclone Possibilities in Desliming To overcome the disadvantages of present deslirning methods, it is necessary to use a device that exhibits a very stable and uniform flow pattern while greatly increasing the settling velocity of

Jan 1, 1952

By C. G. Grant, Wm. B. Price

This investigation of low copper-nickel silvers was untiertaken to check the work of Lèon Guillet on special brasses and to determine, more accurately, the effect of the addition of nickel on the mierostructure of the binary alloys of copper arid zinc. It was hoped that the results could be successfully applied to the practical production of low copper-nickel silvers. To explain the results of his investigations on special brasses, Lèon Guillet evolved his conception of "fictitious compositions." He states,' in his general conclusions, that on the introduction of a small amount of a third metal to a copper-zinc alloy, it enters into solid solution with the normal constituents up to saturation, but by so doing it brings the ternary alloy into a state microscopically equivalent to a binary copper-zinc alloy of fictitious composition, and physically more nearly like the latter than the brass containing copper-zinc in the ratio actually present. The physical properties of the ternary alloy, when compared to the same properties of an actual brass of the fictitious composition, are modified by the natural properties of the third element. Beyond the point of saturation, a special constituent appears and the above generalization no longer holds. For example, if a 60:40 brass has 4 per cent. of tin substituted for 4 per cent. of zinc, the actual composition would analyze 60:36:4. Assuming that 1 per cent. of tin plays the same part as 2 per cent. of zinc, the proportions of copper and equivalent zinc may be stated as 60 parts of copper and 44 parts of zinc, which, figured to 100 per cent., gives an analysis of 57.7 per cent. of copper and 42.3 per cent. of zinc, the fictitious composition for a 60:36:4 tin brass. The relation between ternary alloys containing copper and zinc together with a third metal, and the microscopically equivalent binary alloy of copper and zinc, may be expressed mathematically.

Jan 1, 1924

By Wayne E. Glenn

The San Miguelito Field of Ventura County, California, lies along the coast approximately five miles northwest of the city of Ventura. The structure is one of several in the Ventura anticline, a series of anticlinal folds trending northwest-southeast through the San Miguelito Field. The Ventura Avenue Field lies to the southeast along the anticline, and Padre Canyon and Rin-con Fields lie to the northwest; the series then extends beneath the Pacific Ocean. Production is obtained from the Lower Pico and Repetto formations of Pliocene age, and oil accumulation is controlled by faulting, lithology and structure. The first well in the First Grubb Pool was completed in November, 1931, and to date 48 producing wells have been drilled on the 276 productive acres. Approximately 685 ft of net pay are contained in the eight sand bodies grossing 1,220 ft of section. Production of oil to date has been 15,-600,000 bbl. A gas injection project was instigated in April, 1940, but was discontinued in September, 1949. This paper is confined to a discussion of the development and performance history of the First Grubb Pool of the San Miguelito Field. LOCATION AND GEOLOGY The San Miguelito Oil Field is located in Ventura County about five miles northwest of the city of Ventura along the coastal highway to Santa Barbara. It is located within sections 23, 24, 25, and 30 of Township 3 North, Range 24 West, San Bernardino Base and Meridian. Surface elevation in the field ranges from sea level to plus 1,200 ft, and the terrain is extremely rugged. The structure is well defined on the surface and on the wall of the Amphitheatre Canyon where appears a so-called "text book" anticlinal section. The San Miguelito structure is an asymmetrical, elongated anticline about two miles long and three-fourths of a mile wide. The trend of the axis of the anticline is northwest-southeast. Fig. 9 illustrates the contours and major faults of this structure. Dips on the southwesterly flank average about 40 degrees, whereas the northeasterly flank ranges from 60 to 75 degrees. There are several faults striking generally east and west. These faults do not appear to affect materially the area of accumulation or performance behavior. It is believed that accumulation was affected by steeply dipping beds and extremely low permeability of the northeast flank of the structure. As shown by the typical log, Fig. 1. the San Miguelito Field is divided into two stratigraphic producing intervals. The First Grubb Pool comprises the interval from the "G" to "L" markers; the Second Grubb Pool from the "L" to "M" markers. The First Grubb Pool, ranging in thickness from 1,105 to 1,680 ft, with an average of 1,220 ft, includes approximately 685 ft of oil-bearing sands. The First Grubb zone consists of eight sand intervals separated by shales. The shale bodies separating the eight sand intervals within the First Grubb Pool are continuous throughout the major part of the structure and serve as an effective barrier. Many of the thin, irregular shale or siltstone streaks within these sand bodies are discontinuous and do not affect well performance appreciably. The productive horizons in the First Grubb Pool are siltstones and sandstones of the Lower Pico and Repetto formations of Pliocene age. It is apparent from inspection of the typical log that the "G" to "L" interval might have been separated into at least six producing zones and selectively pro. duced. Unfortunately the electric log and some of our modern tools were not available or were in their infancy dur. ing the period 1931 through 1937. Not until 1937 when eight wells had been completed were there sufficient geological data to permit definition of the sand bodies. Then the problem of reservoir control in this multiple-sand field, where all sands are open to a common

Jan 1, 1950

By George Smith

The Australian Broken Hill Consols mine is situated within a third of a mile eastwards of the famous Broken Rill Proprietory mine; but, so far as has yet been proved, the respective lodes have no connection whatever. The Proprietory line of lode, striking N.E. and S.W., is coincident with the bedding-planes of the inclosing gneiss, and, according to Mr. E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M., government geologist, is undonbtedly a saddle-formation. This opinion, which met with much opposition at the time it was advanced, is now, I understand, being generally confirmed as the work of development opens out fresh areas for observation along the line of lode. The lode is of immense thickness—in places over 300 feet and though it has been found to contain sufficient quantities of secondary silver compounds to yield phenomenal outputs of silver, its principal constituents are various lead and other ores, and it would appear more correct to regard it as an argentiferous lead-deposit than as a silver-lode proper. The Consols lode differs from its gigantic neighbor in every respect. With an average thickness of not more than 18 inches, it has been worked along its course for upwards of 1300 feet, and at every point yet explored has been found remarkably well-defined and persistent. With a strike E. and W., it cuts obliquely across the bedding of gneiss and schist, continuing uninterruptedly through various bands of eruptive amphibolite. The dip, which is to the south, ranges from 24 near the surface to nearly vertical in the lower levels; but the alteration is not regular, as in places the lode is almost flat, and this at a vertical depth of over 300 feet. These changes of inclination have had no effect on the ore-deposits, which, as I shall endeavor to show, have been governed entirely by " cross-

Jan 1, 1897

By S. C. Sun, T. Chao

The reaction of gaseous sulfur trioxide with different aluminum-bearing minerals for the conversion of their alumina content into water soluble sulfates has been investigated. Theoretical considerations indicate that this reaction is thermodynamically feasible and that preferential sulfatization can be accomplished. The five minerals tested were gibbsite, boehmite, diaspore, kaolinite, and halloysite. In general, over 90% sulfatization could be achieved in 1 hr when using sodium sulfate as an additive at a temperature between 500° and 600°C. It was found that sulfates of the light alkali and alkaline earth metals exhibited some effectiveness in promoting the sulfa-tizing reaction. Selective sulfatization of alumina in a mixture of calcined halloysite and ferric oxide was accomplished. The gas-solid type of sulfatizing reactions have become increasingly important in recent years for the treatment of the oxides of such nonferrous metals as cobalt,' nickel,' manganese,3 zinc, and copper.4-6 Similar reactions were attempted in the present investigation for the recovery of aluminum from the low grade aluminous ores. Unlike the Bayer process in which silica is a serious contaminant, or the acid processes whereby iron usually causes difficulties, the reactions between gaseous sulfur trioxide and various aluminous minerals could hopefully be selective for aluminum. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Reactions between aluminum-bearing minerals and gaseous sulfur trioxide have been shown respectively in Table I and Fig. 1 to be thermodynamically favorable for temperatures below 1000°K approximately. Calculations of the thermodynamic functions were where ?G, ?H, ?Cp and ?S are changes in free energy, enthalpy, constant-pressure specific heat, and entropy of the system under consideration, respectively; T is the absolute temperature, R the universal gas constant, and K the equilibrium constant. Thermochemical data so far available for these calculations were based on sources given by T. Chao.7 In Table I, the free energy values indicate that reactions between the gaseous sulfur trioxide and

Jan 1, 1968

By Lewis M. Haupt

IT has given me great pleasure to read, in the papers recently published by this Society, the discussions on the subject of Technical Education, which were developed at the joint meeting held at the Franklin Institute in June, 1876; and since it was impossible for me to be present, I desire to improve this my first opportunity of adding the weight of my testimony and experience to what has been so ably presented by others. It is a subject about which the people need to be kept agitated, that their views may expand with the demands made for a higher and more thorough education. It is the public at large, the capitalist, the manufacturer, and the laborer, who are to be benefited more or less by this elevation of the standard of our professional schools, and it is but just, therefore, that the schools should look to them for the means with which to accomplish so desirable an object. It is no doubt to the interest of a metallurgist to employ a skilled laborer who will prevent waste by properly proportioning his materials ; by regulating the supplies of air and fuel ; by arranging his plant in the most economical manner, and by disposing of his products to the greatest advantage. The engineer is benefited by selecting for an assistant a person able to determine the values of his factors of safety for the same materials in different forms and positions, avoiding expensive suits for damages and cost of reconstruction; he should be able to so locate a road as best to fulfil the requirements of a through traffic, and yet develop local industries. But I need not multiply instances to show what all will readily concede, viz.: the advantages of a theoretical education ; that was fully demonstrated at the previous special meeting, but it is still an open question whether the practical instruction should precede, accompany, or follow the theory.

Jan 1, 1877

By H. J. Wasson

Published literature regarding the nation's oil reserve has been largely concerned with the estimated quantities in sight in known producing fields. This proved reserve has never been large in relation to demand. It has been the practice to consider the total future reserve (beyond that in sight within known fields) in the light of the broad potentialities of vast areas of partially explored sedimentary rocks, which are regarded as possible oil territory. Until recently, but little attention has been given to the rate at which the unexplored potentialities may be. converted into the proved reserve classification. To a certain extent, therefore, our contemporary viewpoint on the subject of national oil reserves is characterized by a pronounced contradiction. On the one hand, we measure known reserves as sufficient for only a few years of consumption—i.e., relative scarcity; on the other hand, we are confident that millions of unexplored acres will yield many new oil fields and that countless deeper productive formations underlie many of our known productive fields—i.e., infinite abundance. Of greater significance than the quantitative measure of either of these reserve classifications is the rate at which reserve replenishment must be accomplished in order to maintain an adequate time supply of proved oil reserves. The accumulation of geological data covering broad areas supports the belief that the remaining undiscovered oil reserve is exceedingly large. The distribution of oil in sedimentary formations of practically all ages, from Cambrian to Recent, is suggestive of almost unlimited possibilities; and the relatively small proportion of these possible areas that has been intensively explored in this country is a further index of the probable magnitude of the undiscovered future reserve. The implication that may reasonably be drawn from these observations is that oil, though distributed with less regularity and concentration than its related hydrocarbon, coal, nevertheless is a relatively abundant natural commodity of which the exhaustion appears remote. Final exhaustion of our oil reserve, if not infinitely remote, is a future contin-

Jan 1, 1937

By Lewis M. Haupt

IT has given me great pleasure to read, in the papers recently pub lished by this Society, the discussions on the subject of Technical Education, which were developed at the joint meeting held at the Franklin Institute in June, 1876; and since it was impossible for me to be present, I desire to improve this my first opportunity of adding the weight of my testimony and experience to what has been so ably presented by others. It is a subject about which the people need to be kept agitated, that their views may expand with the demands made for a higher and more thorough education. It is the public at large, the capitalist, the manufacturer, and the laborer, who are to be benefited more or less by this elevation of the standard of our professional schools, and it is but just, therefore, that the schools should look to them for the means with which to accomplish so de sirable an object. It is no doubt to the interest of a metallurgist to employ a skilled laborer who will prevent waste by properly proportioning his ma terials ; by regulating the supplies of air and fuel; by arranging his plant in the most economical manner, arid by disposing of his products to the greatest advantage. The engineer is benefited by selecting for an assistant a person able to determine the values of his factors of safety for the same materials in different forms and positions, avoiding expensive suits for damages and cost of reconsiruction; he should be able to so locate a road as best to fulfil the requirements of a through traffic, arid yet develop local industries. But I need not multiply instances to show what all will readily concede, viz.: the advantages of a theoretical education ; that was fully demonstrated at the previous special meeting, but it is still an open question whether the practical instruction should precede, accompany, or follow the theory.

By A. Eilers

COMPOSITION OF CHARGES AND CONSUMPTION OF FUEL AT VARIOUS WORKS. A MARKED peculiarity of most of the smelting-works of the Far West is the looseness with which accounts of the operations are kept. Indeed, probably over half of the works do not keep any detailed accounts at all, the yearly gross statement of profit or loss being considered sufficient for all purposes. The reasons for this must apparently be sought in the as yet unsettled state of all business relations, and in the deplorable fact that only in isolated cases educated metallurgists are in charge of the smelting-works. Continual and regular assays of the ores, by-products, and slags, are almost unknown, so that it is impracticable to ascertain, even approximately, the losses in the smelting processes. Of cases where regular accounts are kept of the quantities of ore smelted, of the composition of charges, and of the fuel consumed, I know only two or three. Under these circumstances it is extremely difficult to collect figures which cover the operations for a considerable length of time, and which are so valuable for the metallurgist, who wishes to get an insight into the economy of smelting operations, as shown by practice. Figures obtained by personal observation, which can of course cover only the brief space of the visit of the travelling metallurgist, must, therefore, be made to replace the more valuable data. The writer has had occasion, during the last and the preceding summer, to visit the larger number of the Western lead-smelting works, and offers, in the following pages, such data relating to the economy of lead-smelting in the blast furnace at various works, as he has been able to obtain. The only object in doing so is to place these figures on record, so that they may be from time to time supplemented with other data, which are now wanting. I. EUREKA CONSOLIDATED COMPANY'S SMELTING-WORKS. These works smelt the ores from the mines of the same company on Ruby Hill, Eureka, Nevada. The supply is almost unlimited,

Jan 1, 1873

By P. Ramachandraraa, T. R. Anantharaman

THE technique developed by Duwez, Willens and Kle-ment' for rapid solidification of molten alloys in small quantities by ejecting them on to a highly conducting substrate with the aid of a shock wave has come to be known as "liquid quenching" or "splat cooling" in literature and has already been applied to alloys of many binary systems.' The very high cooling rates of the order of l060 to 1080 per sec obtained in this technique and the consequent drastic undercooling of the melt have led to such striking results as formation of new amorphous and crystalline metastable phases and extension of solid-solubility limits in many alloy systems. The cooling rates in these experiments can, however, be neither accurately measured nor effectively controlled and hence the occurrence of either more than one metastable phase or appreciable differences in constitution in splat-cooled alloys of the same composition cannot be ruled out.3 In fact, workers in two laboratories have reported formation of two different cubic metastable phases in liquid-quenched Au-Si alloys containing 17 to 20 at. pct si.4,5 The present note deals with some new and interesting results obtained in a Ag-21 at. pct Ge alloy and a Au-27 at. pct Ge alloy subjected to the liquid-quenching treatment at different cooling rates. Two alloys of nearly the same composition had earlier been rapidly solidified by the standard "gun technique" in the same laboratory and shown to solidify in nonequilibrium structures, viz., an hcp phase (a = 2.987Å;c =4.718Å) in the Ag-Ge system6,7 and both hcp (a = 2.885Å; c = 4.754Å) and tetragonal (a = 11.627A; c = 22.491Å) phases in the Au-Ge system.3 Apart from different substrates (copper and stainless steel), different melt temperatures (50º to 500°C above the liquidus), and different capillary sizes (0.4 to 1.5 mm diam) in the "gun technique", slower cooling rates of the order of l050C per sec were also obtained in the present work by replacing the substrate by water at room temperature in a modification of the technique due to Olsen and Hultgren.8 No attempt was made to measure the cooling rate in any experiment. The products varied from fine powder (>40 pct by wt—200 mesh) obtained by quenching in water to thin flakes and foils (11.0 sq mm to 4.0 sq cm) produced by splat cooling. They were subjected to the Debye-Scherrer method of X-ray examination in each case. In case of the Ag-Ge alloy, in addition to the expected metastable hcp phase,6 a coexistent tetragonal phase (a = 5.093,Å; c = 7.009Å) was detected in some experiments. Eight weak X-ray reflections from this phase could be identified, two of them being the same as reported earlier.7 With increase in the cooling rate, the dominant hcp phase seems to be first accompanied by traces of silver or germanium and then either homogeneous or mixed with traces of this new tetragonal phase. The splat-cooled Au-Ge alloy showed generally the expected hcp and tetragonal phases,3 but sometimes traces of germanium were also present. Further, two new tetragonal phases with the following lattice param ters could be clearly identified in samples quenched

Jan 1, 1970