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By W. R. Ingalls

In reviewing the history of the metallurgy of zinc, I shall pass hastily over what is only of antiquarian interest. That has been excellently treated by Dr. Bernhard Neumann in "Die Metalle" (1904) and has been described briefly in my "Production and Properties of Zinc" (1902), in my "Lead and Zinc in the United States " (1908), and in other metallurgical works of more or less the same date. In this present monograph, I have it in mind to confine myself mainly to technical practice, especially to that of the last 75 years, prior to which period advance was slow and of no great moment. The ancients made brass by the cementation process, i.e., embedding copper in a mixture of calamine and carbon and heating, whereby zinc oxide was reduced and zinc was vaporized and combined with the copper. Zinc was isolated by some of the alchemists, who named it and knew something of its properties, but made no use of it. Long before then, however, zinc was produced in India. Later it was produced in southern China. Possibly the Chinese obtained their knowledge from India. The Chinese in remote places still produce small quantities of zinc. I have seen photographs of their furnaces; or pots, for they hardly deserve the dignity of being called furnaces. I imagine that they are the same that were used centuries ago, for I cannot conceive of anything more primitive. Anyway, it is certain that the idea of a commercial production of zinc in Europe was imported from the Orient, where the metal was known in commerce as Speauter and Spiauter, whence speltrum and finally our term spelter. Tutanego and Tuteneague are other old names. Dr. Isaac Lawson went to China about 1730, expressly to discover the method of its production. What connection there was between Isaac Lawson and John Champion we do not know, but the latter obtained in 1739 a patent for a process of distillation downward and at some time between 1740 and 1743 erected a works at Bristol and actually began the manufacture of spelter. A production of 200 tons per annum is mentioned. In about the year 1766, Rishop Watson visited the Champion works and saw the process in operation, which previously had been

Jan 1, 1937

By R. J. Wysor

MoRe than two years ago, in making efficiency tests on our hot-blast stoves, I was surprised to discover a marked difference in temperature as indicated by a pyrometer inserted near a stove on blast, and the regular recording instrument situated near the bustle pipe. A special hole was then provided at the junction of the hot-blast main and the bustle pipe, and portable pyrometers with bare fire ends were used, both at this point and in the stove necks. I had occasion to make a number of such tests on various stoves on the same, furnace, the difference in temperature as shown by the two pyrometers varying chiefly with the temperature of the blast, and the distance of the stove from the furnace. However, this difference was always great, often averaging above 100" F., for the entire period of a stove on blast. Later, experiments were made with similar results on another group of stoves. The pyrometers used were properly standardized and checked against each other before and after each test. However, there was still a slight doubt as to the accuracy of the results obtained, as subsequently explained. But I have obtained corroboration of the magnitude of heat losses from blast-furnace hot-blast mains from two independent sources. I have learned from H. A. Brassert, Superintendent of Blast Furnaces, South Works, Illinois Steel Co., that he has recently done some experimental work similar to my own, and found temperature drops of the same order of magnitude. Also, C.,R. Lyle, of the Armstrong Cork Co., has made some interesting theoretical calculations, based on the thermal conductivity of fire brick, for the particular conditions of several of our tests; and his theoretical interpolations, all facts being considered, check our actual observations fairly well. I understand that Mr. Lyle expects to publish the results of his investigations. Method of Conducting the Tests The location of the pyrometer fire ends is shown in Fig. I, a plan of Bethlehem Steel Co.'s "G" blast furnace, hot-blast stoves, and main. Bare fire ends were used at both positions "A" and "B," being inserted

Jan 1, 1916

By James W. Neill

Discussion of the paper of H. 0. Hofman, presented at the Canal Zone meeting, November, 1910, and printed in Bulletin No. 42, June, 1910, pp. 473 to 497. JAMES W. NEILL, Pasadena, Cal. (communication to the Secretary *) :-Professor Hofman's paper brings the art up to . date. As I was one of the pioneers in this business, I beg to give the following incomplete data regarding my efforts in this line. In the year 1883, while I was in charge of the smelting-operations at Mine La Motte, Mo., there was at the concentrator an unusually large production of a middle product, locally called "iron," which carried considerable values in nickel and cobalt, and which it was desirable, for this reason, to treat by itself. The works could not spare a furnace for the purpose; and to handle this product I improvised a "roast-hearth " from an old " lead-hearth." This was a small cast-iron furnace of the usual construction, about 2 by 4 ft. in dimensions, with a hollow cast-iron back, through which the wind circulated before entering the tuyeres. I had a cast-iron grate made to fit this hearth, and placed it flush with the lip, or apron, and above the tuyeres. On this grate, which had round holes about 0.25 in. in diameter, and a total surface of about 20 by 40 in., I roasted the nickeliferous pyrite product; starting the fire with kindling, then adding charcoal, and then gradually feeding the sulphides with a shovel, so as to cover the fire, choke down blow-holes, and get an even bed. Blast at a pressure of 3 or 4 oz. was supplied by a fail-blower. When a cake of roasted material had formed, it was removed with a steel bar, or fork, to the lip of the furnace, and thence into a wheel-barrow.. The fine material which had remained unmelted, but very hot, on top of the cake would promptly ignite when the cake was broken up and removed. The fire would then be covered with fresh material and * Received Aug. 29, 1910.

Apr 1, 1911

By L. D. Ricketts

' In recent years the metallurgical field of the copper industry has expanded greatly, the copper ores have become lean add diverse in charactcr, and we are obliged to treat such ores on a very large scale. On the commercial side, the operating and consulting staffs of the great mining companies have been enlarged and organized, and no great capital expenditure is decided upon until it has been investigated and recommended by a highly organized force of specialists as a committee. I believe that in the scientific field and in the most valuable proceedings of our -various societies the old idea of one-man point of view and one-man treatment of principle and detail together has been splendidly developed and should continue, but for the advancement of our art we should deliberately discuss subjects among ourselves in order to do away with the idiosyncrasies of the individual and to gain a composite view reprcscnting the best thoughts of many men. In the development of new ideas leading to the introduction of new methods, the societies could enlarge their present great field of usefulness if such discussion be had, and in my opinion further great good could be done if a number of men of different qualifications and experience would join in preparing a joint book, each dealing with his particular problem, but consulting the other men. In this way individualism would be preserved and various processes would be described, and if properly reviewed the paper would be palpably capable of analysis, and the student would have at his command the associated efforts of a group of qualified engineers. I have neither the time nor the qualifications to make an investigation and study in detail of hydro-metallurgical processes, but for some years I have foreseen the development of such processes, and I have a deep interest in the subject and have given some of its phases careful consideration from a long-distance viewpoint. I have assisted in directing many experiments and in reviewing the merits of many processes, and am glad to make some introductory remarks with the understanding that other gentlemen present will freely and candidly enter into the discussion and help to fill out the few bare bones that I can uncover.

Jan 1, 1916

By T. Sterry Hunt

I HAVE in a previous communication called the attention of the Institute to the geognostical relations of the crystalline iron ores belonging to the Eozoic rocks of North America, at which time I noticed (1) those associated with the gneisses of the Laurentian series, (2) those of the crystalline schists of the Huronian, as seen in Northern Michigan and in many localities along the Appalachians ; (3) those of Southeastern Missouri associated with petrosilex porphyries and schistose rocks, and presumed to be nearly of the same age with those of the Huronian schists; and (4) the highly titaniferous ores of the Norian or Labradorian series from Essex County, N. Y., and from various parts of Canada. It may here be remarked that, although the presence of titanium is most marked in the Norian ores, this objectionable element is sometimes found in the schistose ores of the Huronian, and to a lesser extent in certain Laurentian magnetites. The ores of each of these geological divisions have their individual peculiarities, which serve to distinguish them to such a degree that the magnetites and specular ores of the Laurentian are as dissimilar to those of the Huronian as are the crystalline silicated rocks of the two series. As it happens that these mineralogical dissimilarities correspond to differences in composition and in adaptability to different processes of manufacture, which, in the present condition of the iron industry, are objects of special consideration to metallurgists, it will be seen that these geognostical distinctions become of great practical importance. During the past year I was desired by the Geological Commissioners of Pennsylvania to devote a few weeks to certain geological studies in the eastern part of the State, in the course of which I was enabled to make, with regard to its crystalline iron ores, some observations to which I desire to call the attention of the Institute. I may mention, in passing, that the great South Mountain belt, from the Schuylkill to the Delaware, is composed of Laurentian rocks, in which are found the characteristic ores of the series like those of the Highlands of New Jersey and New York, and of the Adiron-

Jan 1, 1876

By W. R. Ingalls

WHEN I was a boy, political economy was taught in the old fashioned New England high school that I attended. I still possess my text-book, an abridgment of one of the old classics, and, I referred to it a few days ago. It began with the definition that "political economy is the science which investigates the' nature of wealth, and the laws which govern its production, exchange and distribution." That definition of 50 years ago strikes me still as being a good one. In college I sat under Francis A. Walker, the greatest of American economists. I still have his old text-book, which begins with substantially the same definition as Fawcett, but adds that "political economy has to do with no other subject, whatever, than wealth." As so developed economics was a dry study which captivated but few. It was characterized as the dismal science. It seemed to lead nowhither. . This was perhaps due to the inadequacy of the data available to economists. Consequently, their discussions and deduc-tions were founded largely on conjecture and assump-tions. Naturally this resulted in differences in the formulation of doctrines. There were controversies respecting the nature and influences of money, over the derivation of wages, over the principles of laissez faire (letting things take their own course) over the Malthusian doctrine, and so forth. Amid all this there was one great fundamental law universally recognized, namely the law of supply and demand, which ranks with the law of gravitation and the law of the conservation of energy among the great fundamen-tal laws of nature. The law of supply and demand is the one thing in economics upon which we may fix our eyes as upon the lode star. In the course of time we have fallen out of agreement with Walker's doctrine that political economy has to do with no other subject than wealth. Although it is indeed the science of the production and distribution of wealth we can see that many things pertain to that subject and that economics links hands closely with engineering, biology, and psychology. It is probably the recognition of this that caused the study and exposi-tion of economics to acquire such a strong sociological

Jan 6, 1923

By T. Sterry Hunt

I have in a previous communication called the attention of the Institute to the geognostical relations of the crystalline iron ores belonging to the Eozoic racks of North America, at which time I noticed (1) those associated with the gneisses of the Laurentian series, (2) those of the crystalline schists of the Huronian, as seen in Northern Michigan and in many localities along the Appalachians; (3) those of Southeastern Missouri associated with petrosilex porphyries and schistose rocks, and presumed to be nearly of the same age with those of the Huronian schists; and (4) the highly titaniferous ores of the Norian or Labradorian series from Essex County, N. Y., and from various parts of Canada. It may here be remarked that, although the presence of titanium is most marked in the Norian ores, this objectionable element is sometimes found in the schistose ores of the Huronian, and to a lesser extent in certain Laurentian magnetites. The ores of each of these geological divisions have their individual peculiarities, which serve to distinguish them to such a degree that the magnetites and specular ores of the Laurentian are as dissimilar to those of the Huronian as are the crystalline silicated rocks of the two series. As it happens that these mineralogical dissimilarities correspond to diflerences in composition and in adaptability to different processes of manufacture, which, in the present condition of the iron industry, are objects of special consideration to metallurgists, it will be seen that these geognostical distinctions become of great practical importance. During the past year I was desired by the Geological Commissioners of Pennsylvania to devote a few weeks to certain geological studies in the eastern part of the State, in the course of which I was enabled to make, with regard to its crystalline iron ores, some observations to which I desire to call the attention of the Institute. I may mention, in passing, that the great South Mountain belt, from the Schuylkill to the Delaware, is composed of Laurentian rocks, in which are found the characteristic ores of the series like those of the Highlands of New Jersey and New York, and of the Adiron-

S. F. EMMONS, Washington, D. C.: Papers of Collins, Vogt, DeLaunay, etc.-Mr. Collins tells us about facts in the veins of Cornwall that suggest secondary sulphide-enrichment is highly interesting; and I am free to confess that I have not studied the literature of that region as fully as I should have done. Nevertheless, even if it had been as familiar to me as it is to Mr. Collins, I should probably have hesitated to draw theoretical conclusions without having seen the mines myself; for the personal equation and the point of view of the observer play, perhaps, a larger part in the study of ore-deposits than in that of any other natural phenomena. One important purpose of my paper, and its publication at the time of the Washington meeting, was to call forth remarks from other geologists upon deposits with which they were personally familiar, or to lead them to re-examine such deposits with the idea of secondary enrichment in mind. Mr. Collins's remarks on Rio Tinto, which he has the advantage of personally knowing, are also interesting. With regard, however, to his suggestion-advanced as an apparent argument against our theory-that the re-precipitation of copper from cupric sulphate solution by pyrite can hardly take place there, since it would upset the commercial process, I would remark that, while he is undoubtedly right as to the fact, it does not militate against the reduction and re-precipitation of cupric sulphate in veins; since on the surface, as at Rio Tinto, there is free access of air, and consequently an excess of ferric sulphate, whereas in depth the ferric sulphate would have been mostly reduced to ferrous sulphate, and (there being no excess of acid to hold it in solution) the small amount of copper in the presence of an excess of iron sulphide would be precipitated either as sulphide or as native copper. To Professor Vogt's analogous remarks, that in his experience sulphuric acid is formed only in subordinate amount in the attack of sulphides by ferric sulphate, I would say that Dr.

Jan 1, 1902

By Fred P. Peters

T. D. Yensen.*—As my information is of a negative nature, I think it belongs under this paper. We are particularly interested in magnetic materials and we would like very much on occasions to make use of powder metallurgy. We have tried repeatedly to use powder metallurgy in preparing our nickel alloys but always. with negative results; that is, we cannot get as good magnetic properties by powder metallurgy as we can by starting with a molten material. We have tried by all possible means to make materials' like 50 per cent iron-nickel alloys by powder metallurgy. The compacts can be regularly lorged and rolled but no matter what we do in the way of annealing, the magnetic properties come out very much poorer than if we start with molten material. F. V. Lenel. †—I want to mention one characteristic of articles made from metal powders which distinguishes them from die castings; that is, their wear resistance. Die castings usually are made from zinc or aluminum alloys and a few copper-zinc alloys; all of them are comparatively soft and not very wear resistant. I know of a number of cases where powder metallurgy rather than the die-casting method was used for producing a certain part because higher wear resistance was needed than could be attained in die castings. A, J. LanghammeR.*—The subject of powder metallurgy is somewhat difficult to discuss, and portray, in the time that his been allotted. Most of you would rightly be bored if we went into details. However, I will cite one incident that possibly will help illustrate some of the potentials. Last summer I was in Washington and met Navy officials for the purpose of studying the possibility of making a certain part by powder metallurgy. The part is highly intricate and I happened to remark that the material cost would be high; that is, the cost on one raw material. Promptly a high-ranking Navy officer said: "Mr. Langhammer, if you must pay x dollars a pound for the raw material, but achieve the desired results, the cost of the finished part would still be low."

Jan 1, 1945

By Edgar S. Cook

At the close of the Bethlehem Meeting, the writer was experimenting with large fuel-charges, 4000 Ibs. basis, as compared with 2000 Ibs., hot had not made sufficient progress to draw any safe conclusions. Previously me had always used 2000 Ibs. fuel, the ore-burden being proportioned to this as a basis. I could never persuade myself that there was any advantage to be derived from following the more popular method of larger fuel-charges. Our men were accustomed to the old way of filling ; and we did not care to run the risk of the errors likely to follow any alteration in routine work, particulary as I could not, by my course of reasoning, discover ally compensating gain. Nevertheless, after reading Mr. Gordon's discussion of Mr. Birkinbine's paper, '' Operations of Warwick Furnace from August 27th, 1880, to September 1st, 1885" (Transactions, xiv., 833), I determined to test by actual experiment the value of large fuel-charges : the change was made in the week commencing March 28th, 1886, and continued until July 25th, about four months. The fuel and ores remained during the trial the same as had been used before, and have been used since. For the first two weeks, the furnace worked with great regularity, giving excellent results, exceeding those of the two weeks immediately preceding. But for my remembrance that the furnace had on former occasions worked with equal uniformity for longer periods without any apparent reason, I should doubtless have concluded that this improvement was due to the different method of filling and congratulated myself that a means had at last been found to prevent inconvenient "dirt" accumulations. Before abjuring my previous skepticism, however, I resolved to pursue the trial further. The fourth meek developed the peculiar conditions that had prevailed previous to the change; and these continued with more or less frequency during May, June and July. At last, finding no improvement over the smaller charges—no change in fact for better or for worse—I commenced filling the 2000 lbs. fuel-charge in the latter part of July, and have continued it up to present writing, September 4th.

Jan 1, 1887

Air-sand Process of Cleaning Coal Discussion of paper by THOMAS FRASER and H. F. YANCEY, presented at the New York Meeting, 1926, and issued, as Pamphlet No. 1561-F, with MINING AND METALLURGY, February, 1926. T. DEVENNY, Edgarton, W. Va.-How near the size of the sand can the coal to be treated be brought? Do you use an 8-mesh coal on that cleaner? J. J. RUTLEDGE, Baltimore, Md.-From the little I have seen of the apparatus in operation, I should say 8-mesh. In my experience in metalmine concentration work, trying to separate different minerals on one jig, sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes not. This apparatus has appealed to me; something of this kind should be useful with the silicates and carbonates of zinc. I think this apparatus has possibilities in metal mining. Recently in our coal field a screen has been introduced for cleaning coal; it is giving excellent service. When I asked the inventor why he did not take it to the metal mines, he said there was a good and sufficient reason, in a patent way. There may be reasons why it would not be applicable for metal mining; but the simplicity of it appeals to me and I cannot see why it could not be so used. T. FRASER (written discussion).-We feel that 8-mesh would be about -the minimum size of coal practicable to treat by the air-sand process. This would depend partly upon the friability of the coal. The more nearly the lower size limits of the coal- approaches the size of the sand, the more .time will be required in screening the sand out of the cleaned coal, which would mean a little more chance of breakage. In regard to the treatment of ores; this would necessitate the use of some heavier mediums than ordinary silica sand, or some other means of making the separation at a higher specific gravity than is required for coal. We are now working on a method of obtaining this effect for the preparation of anthracite coal without resorting to the use of heavier and more expensive material than common sand.

Jan 1, 1927

By Kenneth P. Katen

INTRODUCTION Though the use of continuous mining machines consolidated the operations of cutting, drilling, blasting, and loading in one machine that would theoretically provide uninterrupted production, it was soon realized that the face haulage and roof support operations remained as major impediments to continuous production. The ability to provide not only continuous cutting and loading, but also continuous haulage and roof support (see Fig. I), was the basis for the introduction of mechanized longwall systems in this country from Europe in 1951. The early systems employed friction props for roof support, but were to become obsolete shortly after introduction of the first hydraulically powered, self-advancing supports in 1960. Since then, use of the longwall technique has grown to the point where it is currently providing more than 5% of the annual output of underground coal mines in the United States. The shortwall system had its origin in Australia, but was first introduced into this country in 1962 following the development of powered roof supports. It, too, provides for continuous cutting, loading, and roof support (see Fig. 2), but has not experienced the widespread popularity of longwall due to its inherent inability to easily provide for continuous haulage. While there are in the neighborhood of 100 longwall systems currently in operation in this country, there are only a handful of short- wall operations providing production of slightly more than 907 184.7 t/a (1,000,000 stpy) Both of these systems provide uninterrupted roof support for face operations by means of hydraulically powered steel roof supports. In each case, the coal removal consists of open-end cuts made from the narrow end of a large rectangular pillar (panel) which has been blocked out by continuous miners developing entries around its perimeter. However, this is the extent of the similarities between the two systems. It is hoped

Jan 1, 1981

By George B. Lee

DURING The Two Years In Which The New Reduction-Works Of The Copper Queen Consolidated Mining Co. Have Been In Operation At Douglas, Ariz., There Has Developed A Remarkable Condition In Regard To The Corrosive Action Of The Water Used To Cool The Jackets Of The Blast-Furnaces. Were It Not For The Many Contradictory Features, It Might Pass As One Of The Unavoidable Troubles Due To The Composition Of The Water. This Water, Obtained From Wells 600 Ft. Deep, Is Also Used In The Steam-Boilers, And Its Composition, As Shown By The Following Analysis, Does Not Indicate The Presence Of Any Ingredient Which Would Explain The Corrosion Grains Per U. S. Gal. Silica, 0.861 Iron Oxide And Alumina, 0.223 Calcium Carbonate, 0.2111 Calcium Sulphate, Magnesium Carbonate, Sodium And Potassium Sulphates, . 14.850 Sodium And Potassium Chlorides, 9.732 Sodium And Potassium Carbonate, 6.452 32.409 The Jackets Are Made Of Inner Plates 0.5 In. Thick And An Outer Plate I In. Thick, With 3-In. Stiffeners Between The Inner And Outer Plates. In From 10 To 12 Months The Inner Plates Have Been Reduced By Corrosion To A Thickness Of From 1/8 To 1/16 In., While The Outer Plate In The Same Time Is Reduced By Less Than 1/16 In., And The Stiffeners Show Very Little Corrosion. The Plates Are Pitted And Eaten Away In Some Places More Than In Others. There Is Practically No Scale Found On The Jackets, But When Cleaned Considerable Iron Oxide Is Found In The Bottoms. With An Action So Marked, Serious Trouble Would Be Expected In The Boilers, But, On The Contrary, A Recent Inspection By a

Mar 1, 1908

By C. H. Mathewson, M. R. Pickus

The study of the plastic deformation and recrystallization of metals has been the subject of many investigations. In regard to the simple deformational processes, such as tension and compression, the early knowledge gained from studies of polycrystalline material has been supplemented by many significant researches on the behavior of single crystals. Unfortunately, this has not been true for more complicated deformational processes. As far back as 1927, G. I. Taylor1 wrote: It is impossible in the present state of knowledge to do more than give a possible reason why (face-centered cubic) crystals set themselves with a (110) direction in the plane of rolling, and at right angles to the direction of rolling. The explanation of why the orientation of the crystal axes round the transverse direction is what it is, must be left till the distortion of metals, and particularly single crystals of metals in the process of rolling, has been studied in greater detail. That this gap in the systematic study of deformation and recrystallization has not yet been filled was indicated by C. H. Samans, who wrote in 1934 that "only four investigations upon cold-rolled single crystals of any of the face-centered cubic metals have been reported in the literature." Of these four studies, only those of S. Tanaka3 and T. Sakaoj4 both of whom worked with aluminum crystals, had quantitative significance. The other two, carried out by F. Wever5 and W. G. Burgers16 were of a qualitative nature. It is our hope that the present investigation may contribute something to the knowledge necessary for a rationalization of the origin of rolling textures in terms of the known behavior of single crystals, and may add pertinent information concerning the recrystallization characteristics of deformed single crystals.

Jan 1, 1939

By M. R. Pickus, C. H. Mathewson

The study of the plastic deformation and recrystallization of metals has been the subject of many investigations. In regard to the simple deformational processes, such as tension and compression, the early knowledge gained from studies of polycrystalline material has been supplemented by many significant researches on the behavior of single crystals. Unfortunately, this has not been true for more complicated deformational processes. As far back as 1927, G. I. Taylor1 wrote: It is impossible in the present state of knowledge to do more than give a possible reason why (face-centered cubic) crystals set themselves with a (110) direction in the plane of rolling, and at right angles to the direction of rolling. The explanation of why the orientation of the crystal axes round the transverse direction is what it is, must be left till the distortion of metals, and particularly single crystals of metals in the process of rolling, has been studied in greater detail. That this gap in the systematic study of deformation and recrystallization has not yet been filled was indicated by C. H. Samans, who wrote in 1934 that "only four investigations upon cold-rolled single crystals of any of the face-centered cubic metals have been reported in the literature." Of these four studies, only those of S. Tanaka3 and T. Sakaoj4 both of whom worked with aluminum crystals, had quantitative significance. The other two, carried out by F. Wever5 and W. G. Burgers16 were of a qualitative nature. It is our hope that the present investigation may contribute something to the knowledge necessary for a rationalization of the origin of rolling textures in terms of the known behavior of single crystals, and may add pertinent information concerning the recrystallization characteristics of deformed single crystals.

Jan 1, 1939

By P. H. Royster

SOMETHING of a mystery has attached itself to the production of ferromanganese in the blast furnace. This alloy has been produced on the Continent almost continuously since 1876 and in very considerable tonnages, but little definite information concerning the practice is to he found in technical literature, and almost nothing in the way of a theory of the manganese furnace. In this country prior to 1904, bit one company had attempted its production in a serious way, and none of the operating data or other information from this company has been, or is, available to the public. In the last 5 years, as a result of the restriction of imports, a number of furnaces have been blown in on this alloy, with the result that in 1918 as many, as 18 furnaces were in blast. The majority of the men in charge of these furnaces had had little previous experience in such operations. Realizing the advantages both to the country and to the industry from a pooling of operating data and experiences, the Bureau of Mines, in the summer of 1918, undertook the collection of data from ferromanganese furnaces. Although the results of this investigation have already been reported to the companies cooperating, they may he of permanent metallurgical interest, so this paper attempts to give, briefly, the more important points brought out in the investigations. OPERATING DATA IN FERROMANGANESE PRACTICE Operating data were collected by the Bureau from 11 ferromanganese furnaces, which will be referred to throughout this paper as furnaces A, B, C, F, G, I, J, K, L, M, and P. The dimensions, of seven of the furnaces are given in Table 1. The companies from whom this infor-

Jan 2, 1919

By Eugene A. Stephenson

Critical analyses of the work expended in producing oil by the utilization of gas energy have appeared in the publications of Shaw,' Pierce and LewisI2 and Herold,3 authors who have ably discussed the factors which must be taken into consideration in comparing energy consumed per barrel in various wells which are flowed by means of gas-lift. However, two distinct phases of oil production are concerned with the ratio of gas energy consumed to oil produced. One of these phases is the gas-lift, which utilizes the differential gas pressures for the purpose of flowing oil, whether these pressures be natural reservoir pressures or be induced by artificial compression of gas or air. The other phase has to do with prorating oil production in pools which are operated either as units, or are subject to such restrictions as those imposed at Oklahoma City by the Corporation Commission, or by similar controlling groups in other fields. An abundance of literature is available relative to the problems of flowing wells by gas-lift, but the first suggestion that the energy of the gas within the oil and gas pool might serve as a basis for proration, appeared in the timely article by Mc Williams.4 Much of the dissatisfaction with proration in certain fields arises because some operators feel that besides the hazard to the wells which accompanies the test, the method of allocating production on the basis of the " potential" gage is inequitable and gives some operators a distinct advantage over others.5 The most severe penalty may be exacted from the most progressive operators or those who attempt to produce their oil with a minimum quantity of reservoir gas. If no difficulties ever developed in drilling, shutting off water, or in well completion, it might

Jan 1, 1931

Albert Sauveur, Cambridge, Mass. (written discussion).— In his introductory paragraph, the author states that he has come to bury Beilby, not to praise him. The paper, however, gives the impression that while he may have dug the grave, Beilby is still at large. I am not one of those whom the author calls enthusiastic supporters of Beilby's amorphous theory and in support of this claim quote from a book I am writing: "Attractive as the amorphous theory is, and notwithstanding the ability with which it has been presented and the renown of its sponsors and supporters, it should not be accepted without reservations as a demonstrated fact.... So long as it explains more satisfactorily than other theories a greater number of phenomena in which it may play a part, we should use it in preference to others as the best available. Let us avoid the danger, however, into which too many fall, of accepting as indisputable truths, statements and theories emanating from those whom we hold in great esteem. It is not what those men themselves would wish us to do. I am entitled, I think, to occupy a position in the middle ground. Neither should Howe be classified with the enthusiastic supporters for he has written that the theory should be classed rather among the precious working theories than among those firmly established," a very wise and prudent statement. Jeffries, on the other hand, I would not hesitate to describe as an enthusiastic supporter. The author reproaches the advocates of the amorphous theory with having taken whatever properties they needed and with having assigned them arbitrarily to the hypothetical amorphous phase. He then applics their method to small crystals. If the existence of an amorphous phase is assumed, its greater tenacity and greater hardness is satisfactorily explained in the words of Howc: '(This greater strength is natural, because the amorphous state lacks the cleavages and slip planes which weaken crystalline substances." Can the greater strength and hardness claimed for small crystals be as satisfactorily explained? Nor do I think that the cold deformation of metals through successive slips within the crystalline grains can he accounted for as acceptably by the "small crystals theory."

Jan 1, 1923

By A. L. Field

This general subject has been so thoroughly discussed by Dr. Herty and his associates, especially with regard to the degree of oxidation of the metal at the time that the silicon pig or spiegel is added, that I am not going to spend much time on that today. I should like to propound a question, which is based on my own observations made some years ago while with a large alloy-steel company which had two open-hearth furnace plants. It is true that one of these plants was not engaged particularly in making alloy steels, but there were certain relations between slag and metal composition which appeared to me to be entirely different in the two plants. I have an explanation for it that is more or less incomplete, but possibly Dr. Herty or Mr. Reinartz or some of the others may be able to complete it. Suppose we take our three layers; the metal on the bottom, on top of that the slag, and on top of the slag, the gas. We cannot overlook the gaseous phase. Regardless of the effect of the iron oxide in the slag on the rate of carbon elimination—and that, of course, is rather important in alloy practice since it is not desirable to have the carbon dropping too rapidly at the time the deoxidizing is had in the furnace—it will probably be admitted that it depends on the iron oxide in the metal for a given carbon oxide. I have seen cases where with approximately identical metal and slag compositions one furnace would work twice as rapidly as another in removing carbon. Of course, there is some explanation of this in what others have already said, that the question of the exact lime and silica content of the slag determines the activity and viscosity of the slag; but I am convinced, without having reviewed the actual records since I was asked to make this talk, because they were not available at the time, that the slags in these two furnaces were not materially different. Putting it another way, one furnace would have

Jan 1, 1935

Albert Sauveur, Cambridge, Mass. (written discussion).— In his introductory paragraph, the author states that he has come to bury Beilby, not to praise him. The paper, however, gives the impression that while he may have dug the grave, Beilby is still at large. I am not one of those whom the author calls enthusiastic supporters of Beilby's amorphous theory and in support of this claim quote from a book I am writing: "Attractive as the amorphous theory is, and notwithstanding the ability with which it has been presented and the renown of its sponsors and supporters, it should not be accepted without reservations as a demonstrated fact.... So long as it explains more satisfactorily than other theories a greater number of phenomena in which it may play a part, we should use it in preference to others as the best available. Let us avoid the danger, however, into which too many fall, of accepting as indisputable truths, statements and theories emanating from those whom we hold in great esteem. It is not what those men themselves would wish us to do. I am entitled, I think, to occupy a position in the middle ground. Neither should Howe be classified with the enthusiastic supporters for he has written that the theory should be classed rather among the precious working theories than among those firmly established," a very wise and prudent statement. Jeffries, on the other hand, I would not hesitate to describe as an enthusiastic supporter. The author reproaches the advocates of the amorphous theory with having taken whatever properties they needed and with having assigned them arbitrarily to the hypothetical amorphous phase. He then applics their method to small crystals. If the existence of an amorphous phase is assumed, its greater tenacity and greater hardness is satisfactorily explained in the words of Howc: '(This greater strength is natural, because the amorphous state lacks the cleavages and slip planes which weaken crystalline substances." Can the greater strength and hardness claimed for small crystals be as satisfactorily explained? Nor do I think that the cold deformation of metals through successive slips within the crystalline grains can he accounted for as acceptably by the "small crystals theory."

Jan 1, 1923