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By Luis Toron, Salvador Cortes-Obregon

John D. Price (Colorado Fuel and Iron Corp., Pueblo, Colo)—The paper on the coal fields of the Oaxaca district as prepared by engineers Toron and Cortes-Obregon of the staff of the Bank of Mexico bears witness to the thorough and careful way in which the men associated with this organization perform their work. There is little to be added to their paper in way of discussion other than to confirm and amplify some of their statements. Since the only extensive and well-developed field of coking coal lies in the northeastern section of the country adjacent to Sabinas in the state of Coahuila, it follows that blast furnace plants would be located in that same region. Two such plants are now operating at Monterrey and Monclova, using coke produced at the Sabinas district mines. But the nearer of these two plants is 600 miles from Mexico City and even farther from the center of population. Transportation of products from these mills to the market area is therefore expensive, both because of the distance and the difficulty of the terrain over which it must be carried. The development of an integrated steel industry closer to the center of population has therefore long been a goal toward which the Mexican technicians have been striving. While the presence of coal of some grade has been reported in many of the states, and many ideas have been advanced regarding its possible uses in iron and steel production, deposits of anthracite in Sonora and the various coals of the Oaxaca district as reported on in this paper are the only ones that have been explored in a serious manner. The coking coal from the Mix-tepec zone appears to offer promise of producing a coke which could be used in a standard blast furnace. Several problems are indicated, however: 1—The ash in the coal is high as mined, but indications are that it can be washed to an ash content of 15 pct with a recovery of 70 pct of washed coal. 2—Such washing would increase the volatile content from 17.4 pct to about 20 pct, and in a byproduct oven this should give a coke yield of close to 80 pct with an ash content of coke under 20 pct. 3—A free swelling index of 5 appears low for a good coking coal, and below that of the coals from the Sabinas district, which show between 6 and 9. But washing of the coal should result in an improvement in this regard; in the United States coals from Utah with an index even lower than 5 have made a usable coke. 4—A coal with volatile as low as 17.4 in raw coal and 20 in washed coal would come close to being classed as a low-volatile rather than medium-volatile coal, and low-volatile coals are notorious for their high expansion properties. Several plants in the United States are making coke from straight medium-volatile coal of 26 to 28 volatile content, and one at Rosita,, Mexico, from coal of 25 volatile. But no plants to my knowledge are using coal as low as 20 volatile. Since the Rosita coal appears to be a borderline coal from the angle of its expansion properties the coking of one of the straight lower volatile must be approached with caution. 5—There are few coals possessing any degree of coking properties which cannot be used in coke production by careful attention to its preparation and blending. The fact that coals of other types are available in this same region make improvement through blending very possible. 6—There are other workable methods of reducing iron ore other than the conventional coke-blast-furnace method. These will not be discussed here but it is known that their use has been considered. The technicians of not only Mexico but also of the other Latin American countries are keenly aware of their natural resources and their national needs. This paper emphasizes the fact that the Mexican technicians are working on their problem and attempting to speed the day of self-sufficiency for their country. Salvatore Cortes-Obregon (author's reply)—I wish to thank Mr. Price for his kind remarks. The Mixtepec coal as shown in Table II has 30 pct ash and a free swelling index of 5, but when the same coal is washed to 15 pct ash it has a free swelling index of 8 to 9 and the volatiles increased from 17.4 to 20.7 pct. A satisfactory coke has been produced from blends made in the Mexican laboratory using at least 40 pct of the Mixtepec coking coals with the other Oaxaca non-coking coals. Koppers in Germany report good coke obtained from the Oaxaca coal with a blend of 80 pct Mixtepec coal. Consideration is being given the possibility of using methods other than the conventional blast furnace for the reduction of iron ore near the Oaxaca area; electric furnaces appear promising. The non-coking coals could be used to produce cheap electric energy and the coking coals to make metallurgical coke.

Jan 1, 1955

By AIME AIME

THE Federated American Engineering Societies through its Executive Board has endorsed House Bill 5230, introduced April 26, 1921, which provides for- the completion of the topographical survey of the United States. Before this bill can be reported out it will be necessary for the House Committee on -interstate and foreign commerce to hold hearings. This will not be done unless the engineers of the country show interest -and demand action which should be taken immediately after the recess ends and Congress reconvenes this fall. Surveys and maps have been made in this country ever since Captain John Smith mapped Chesapeake Bay about. 300 years ago, but it is only in comparatively recent years that the need for accurate maps has been keenly felt by those engaged in the industrial' and commercial development of the country.

Jan 1, 1921

By E. F. Koch, J. L. Walter

oriented crystals of iron and iron with 3, 5, and 6.25 pct Si were rolled to reductions of 10 and 70 to 97 pct at room temperature. Similarly oriented crystals were deformed in tension. Dislocation substructures of the deformed crystals were observed by transmission electron microscopy to determine the effect of silicon on the formation of substructures. Pole figures were obtained to relate orientation changes to substructure. When rolled 10 pct, the iron crystals and the 3 pct Si-Fe crystals formed cells, 1 and 0.2 u in diameter, respecliuely. Cells were absent in the higher-silicon crystals. Extended dislocations and possible stacking faults were observed in the 6.25 pct Si-Fe crystal rolled 10 pct and annealed at 650°C. The stacking-fault energy was estimated to be 20 ergs per sq cm. Rolling to 70 pct resulted in the formation of sub-bands (0.9 µ wide) ill the iron crystals and transition bands (containing 0.2-µ-wide subbands) in the 3 pct Si crystals. No subbands formed in the 5 pct Si-Fe crystal until it was ankzealed. SliP occurred on (112) planes ill tension. The slip traces on the 3 pct Si crystal were wary while those on the 5 pct Si crystal wvere straight. The strain-hardening coefficient for the 5 pct Si crystal was nearly zero. Cells did not form, at least at elongations up to 10 pet. The results suggest that cross slip of iron is restricted by additions of silicon beyond about 3 pct possibly by formation of immobile extended dislocations. IN a previous paper' the authors described the substructures developed in (100)[001]-oriented crystals of 3 pct Si-Fe which were rolled to reductions of 10 to 90 pct at room temperature. At low reductions (10 to 20 pct) cells, approximately 0.2 to 0.3 ja in diameter, were formed. The cell walls consisted mainly of edge dislocations. With increasing reduction (up to 50 pct) the cells were seen to elongate in the rolling direction. In certain regions of the crystal there were significant reorientations which were characterized as rotations about an axis normal to the (100) or rolling plane. These regions were called "transition bands". The regions in which there were no reorientations were called ('deformation bands". At reductions of 60 to 70 pct the elongated cells in the transition bands became sub-bands separated by low-angle tilt boundaries with angles of disorientation of about 2 deg. The elongated cell structure in the deformation band was replaced by a general distribution of dislocations. It was noted that the width of the subbands in the transition bands remained 0.2 to 0.3 µ; i .e., the width of the subbands was the same as the initial cell diameter for reductions up to at least 70 pct. From this, and from considerations of the mechanism of formation of the transition bands,' it was concluded that the subbands evolved directly from the initial cells. In order to check this conclusion, it was decided to examine the relationship between initial cell diameter and width of subbands produced by large rolling reductions. Cell size is known to be dependent upon the temperature of deformation.2,3 However, preliminary experiments with 3 pct Si-Fe crystals indicated that the change in cell size with increasing temperature of deform,ation was not sufficient for the present purpose. On the other hand, cell diameters generally reported for iron deformed at room temperature2'3 range from 1 to 2 p, a factor of 3 to 10 larger than the cells in 3 pct Si-Fe rolled to 10 pct reduction,' indicating the possibility of a marked dependence of substructure (at least in terms of cell size) on the amount of silicon in iron. Thus, the investigation was enlarged to include the study of the effects of varying silicon content on substructure in lightly rolled as well as in heavily rolled crystals of iron and iron with 3, 5, and 6.25 pct Si. The crystals used in this study all had the same orientation, (100)[001], with respect to rolling plane and rolling direction. These were rolled to reductions of from 10 to 97 pct and the substructures determined by electron transmission microscopy in both the rolled state and after annealing. In addition, stress-strain curves were obtained from (100)[001]-oriented crystals of iron and 3 and 5 pct Si-Fe to determine the effect of silicon on tensile properties. The dislocation substructure of the tensile specimens was also determined for Samples pulled to 2 and 10 pct elongation at room temperature for comparison with the substructures produced by rolling. 1) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Crystals with 3, 5, and 6.25 pct Si were prepared by annealing 0.012-in.-thick sheets of high-purity Si-Fe in purified argon at 1200°C to effect growth

Jan 1, 1965

By N. Mungan, F. W. Smith, J. L. Thompson

Adsorption of polymers and transport, rheology and oil recovery efficiency of their solutions were studied in the laboratory to evaluate the use of polymers in waterflood-ing. While a tenfold mobility reduction was obtained with polymer concentrations as low as 0.05 per cent by weight, the mobility reduction depended on the type of polymer, molecular weight, salinity and pH of water, crude oil and capillary properties of the porous media. Choice of a suitable polymer and a workable concentration will have to be tailored for each application. Little reduction in the residual oil saturation can be expected from polymer flooding. Improvement in the volumetric sweep efficiency is possible hut the extent of the improvement can best be evaluated by properly designed field testing. Some aspects of the field use of polymer floods are discussed. INTRODUCTION Waterflooding is a simple, inexpensive secondary recovery method and is being used widely. Innumerable laboratory studies have been made to unravel the fundamentals of the displacement of oil by water and to find the ways of most efficient oil recovery. These studies and a great many field case histories have revealed that the prime cause of poor oil recovery is the inefficient and incomplete sweep of reservoir volume by the injected water. Sweep efficiency is affected by many factors of which the mobility ratio is an important one. Mobility ratio M is defined here as the ratio of water to oil mobilities: M = (k»/y,r)/(k,JJJJ........(1) In Eq. I, the permeabilities are the effective permeabilities and depend on fluid saturations and, hence, change during the different depletion stages in a flood. A wide practice is to use the effective water permeability at residual oil saturation and the effective oil permeability at interstitial water saturation in Eq. 1. If the mobility ratio is greater than one, the mobility ratio is unfavorable and water, being more mobile than oil, would finger through the oil zone resulting in poor oil recovery efficiency. If the mobility ratio is favorable (one or less) the displacement of oil by water occurs more or less in a pistonlike fashion. In some waterfloods. the mobility ratio is unfavorable and any additives by which the mobility of water can be decreased would favor more efficient oil recovery. The thing to bear in mind, however, is whether or not the improvement in oil recovery is sufficient to more than pay out the cost of the additives needed. For example, materials like sugars, alcohols and glycerine reduce water mobility by thickening the water, but the cost of material requirement precludes any field application. For an additive to be useful in water-flooding, it must bring about a large reduction in water mobility at low concentrations; it must be adsorbed only negligibly; and it must not completely plug up the formation. Some synthetic organic polymers have shown promise of meeting these requirements and have been used in the field.'-W owever, no in-depth studies of the rheological, adsorption and oil displacement characteristics of polymer solutions have been reported. The present work is a study of these properties. EXPERIMENTAL In this work, concentrations are given on a weight per volume basis; 0.5 per cent concentration means 0.5 gm of polymer is dissolved in enough water (or NaCl solution) to make 100 ml. A bactericide, usually 0.1 to 0.2 per cent by volume of 38 per cent formaldehyde solution, was used in the polymer solutions. The NaCl solution was 30,000 ppm. Some properties of the polymers studied are given in Table I. Physical properties of all cores used are in Table 2. Flow behavior of polymer solutions was studied by three consecutive flow tests in cores. First, water (or brine) was injected at constant rate of about 1 ft/D to obtain the water mobility. Then, filtered polymer solution (prepared in water or brine) was flowed through the core. Since the rate was constant, increase in the pressure drop across the core reflects decrease in the mobility. Finally, the core was flooded with water (or brine) to study recovery of mobility. The Alundum cores which were used in

Jan 1, 1967

By Charles F. Hickey, Eric B. Kula

Thermomechanical treatments applied to the maraging steels include a) cold working in the austenitic condition at 650°F, followed by transformation to martensite and aging, b) cold working in the murtensitic condition and aging, and c) cold working in the aged condition with and without subsequent reaging. The strength increases in these steels are very small compared to the increases observed in conventional carbon and alloy steels. The changes that are observed are compatible with the strengthening mechanisms operative during thermomechanical treatment of conventional steels, however. Differences are caused by the absence of a carbide precipitate and the low work-hardening rate in both the solution-treated and the aged conditions. ThE 18 pct Ni maraging steels represent a class of steels which are finding great interest for high-strength applications.1~2 They are essentially carbon-free, and contain 7 to 9 pct Co, 3 to 5 pct Mo, and 0.2 to 0.8 pct Ti. Although austenitic at elevated temperatures, they can be air-cooled to room temperature to form a martensite, which because of the absence of carbon is relatively soft. On subsequent reheating age hardening occurs and strength levels of 250 to 300 ksi yield strength can be attained. These steels appear to be particularly suitable for studying the response to various thermome-chanical treatments for additional reasons other than the obvious one of attempting to improve their already attractive properties. Thermomechanical treatments can be defined as treatments whereby plastic deformation, generally below the recrystal-lization temperature, is introduced into the heat-treatment cycle of a steel in order to improve the properties. With an absence of intermediate transformation products on air cooling the maraging steels have good hardenability and hence can readily be cold-worked in the austenitic condition prior to transformation to martensite. Further, they can be worked in the martensitic condition prior to aging, and even can be deformed in the fully aged condition. Finally, it is of interest to compare their re- sponse to that of the more conventional alloy and carbon steels, where the role of carbides is important in the strength increase by thermomechani-cal treatments. The thermomechanical treatment of conventional steels has been the subject of a recent review.' I) MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE The steel used in this investigation was a commercially produced vacuum-melt heat, which had been rolled to 0.090 in. and mill-annealed. The composition of the alloy was as follows: 0.02 C, 0.08 Mn, 0.10 Si, 0.009 P, 0.009 S, 18.96 Ni, 7.34 Co, 5.04 Mo, 0.29 Ti, 0.05 Al, 0.004 B, 0.01 Zr, and 0.05 Ca. Unless otherwise stated the heat treatments used were the standai-d solution treatment at 1500°F for 1 hr, air cool, followed by a 900°F, 3 hr age. In this condition, the material exhibited 232 ksi yield strength and 239 ksi tensile strength. Mechanical properties were determined by Vicker's hardness measurement (20 kg) and by tensile tests on standard 1/2-in.-wide, 2-in.-gage-length sheet tensile specimens. Notch tensile tests were run using the 1-in.-wide NASA type, edge-notched specimen.4 Fracture-toughness determinations were made on 3-in.-wide, center-notched, fatigue-cracked specimens, following the recommendations of the ASTM Committee on Fracture-Toughness Testing.4 An electric-potential technique was used for measuring the crack size at the onset of rapid crack propagation5 which is necessary for calculations of Kc, the critical stress-intensity factor under plane-stress conditions. The critical stress-intensity factor under plane-strain conditions KI, was also calculated, using the stress at which the first observable crack growth occurred. 11) RESULTS A) Cold-Worked in the Austenitic Condition. The reported M, temperature for the 18 pct Ni maraging steel is about 310°F.1 Therefore, a temperature of 650°F was selected as suitable for rolling in the austenitic condition. Specimens were solution-treated at 1500°F for 1 hr, air-cooled to 650°F, and rolled varying percentages from 0 to 60 pct, at 20 pct reduction per pass. Tensile and hardness properties after aging at 900°F for 3 hr are shown in Fig. 1. The tensile strength increases from 253 to 271 ksi and the yield strength from 247 to 265 ksi as a result of a reduc-

Jan 1, 1964

By Robert S. Dewey

More wells were drilled in West Texas† during 1944 than in any year since 1941. As compared with 1943, there was an 82.5 per cent increase in the total number of completed wells. The 1646 wells required an estimated 140,715 days to complete for a total of 7,632,249 ft. An average of 85 completion days was required to drill to an average of 4630 ft. This depth is approximately 100 ft. greater than that of the previous year. It is estimated that $100,000,000 was invested in drilled wells. As of Dec. 31, 1944, there were 270 field and 91 wildcat wells being drilled. While an identical number of wells were drilling Dec. 31, 1943, the proportion of wildcats increased in 1944 from 19.7 to 25.2 per cent. During 1944, oil wells were completed in 103 of the 164 fields in West Texas. Of the 1361 oil wells, 385 were in Slaughter, 116 in Fullerton, 63 in North Cowden, 62 in Fuhrman-Mascho, 59 in Wasson, 52 in Westbrook and 47 in North Ward. Approximately 22 per cent of the wildcat drilling was to pre-Permian formations. Despite the increasing proportion of wildcat wells drilled, the wildcat discovery rate has declined since the year 1942. AS compared with 1943, the number of wildcat wells drilled increased from 11.7 to 12.7 per cent and the footage in wildcat exploration increased from 13.3 to 13.8 per cent of the total. The monthly production of crude continued to increase to a peak of 15,336,000 bbl. in October 1944. As compared with a similar peak production in October 1943, there was a 37.3 per cent increase. The yearly production increased from 98,165,-ooo bbl. in 1943 to 159,943,000 bbl. in 1944, an increase of 62.8 per cent. Based upon an assumed average price of $1.00 per barrel and less 1/8 royalty, the gross return to the producer amounts to $140, 000,000. From 1943 to 1944, the average number of producing wells increased 6 per cent while the average daily production per well increased 53.1 per cent. The average daily production per well increased from 17.5 bbl. in 1943 to 26.8 bbl. in 1944. The proportion of flowing wells decreased from 50.5 per cent in January to 49.1 per cent in December 1944. Drilling With the continued shortage of labor and materials, drilling costs have risen sharply. Just how much is difficult to ascertain. Owing to competition for available drilling rigs, contractors are reluctant to assume drilling risks. In consequence, some contracts are let on a cost plus basis, or day work below some specified depth with the operator furnishing part of the consumable materials, such as mud and drilling bits. Contractors are having difficulty in maintaining full and effective drilling crews with insufficient and inexperienced labor. Service companies have inadequate labor and equipment to meet their appointments promptly. Pipe Lines The Gulf Pipe Line Co. increased the capacity of its 10-in. main line by filling in gaps amounting to 75 miles on the loops between Judkins and Weatherford, Texas.

Jan 1, 1945

Two sessions during the recent AMC Mining Convention in Los Angeles, September 23-26, served to update industry personnel on the status of health and safety regulations in the US. As reflected by the American Mining Congress resolution on mine safety and health, "Based on experience with the federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 and the federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977, (AMC) does not believe that laws designed to force compliance with regulations through the imposition of criminal or civil penalties will result in safer mines. (AMC) feels that the government's participation will be much more productive if greater emphasis is placed on research, training, and inspections aimed primarily at assisting operators and employees in recognizing and eliminating hazardous conditions and practices.

Jan 11, 1979

By A. S. Malicsi, R. J. Lipp, I. Iwasaki

A loch-grade copper-nickel deposit, with an estimated 4.6 Gt (5 billion st) and average analyses of 0.6% copper, 0.2% nickel, occurs in northeastern Minnesota. In addition to copper, nickel, cobalt, and precious metals, the Duluth gabbro contains magnetite, ilmenite, olivine, plagioclase, and biotite. It u estimated that flotation tailings that would be produced by a concentrator of optimal size to sustain a smelter would amount to 20 Mt/a (22 million stpy). The flotation tailings, having already been ground, warrant a closer examination for recovery and use of potential byproducts. Residual sulfide minerals and fibrous minerals may also be isolated and treated separately for useful purposes or for disposal in an environmentally acceptable manner. Two flowsheets were developed; one involving preconcentration by low- and high-intensity magnetic separation and another involving preconcentration by gravity concentration. Concentration methods for recovering and purifying individual byproduct minerals were investigated. From their chemical, physical, and mineralogical characteristics, the potential areas of application and marketabilities of each product fraction were surveyed.

Jan 1, 1985

By J. M. Hassler

Nowhere can there be found a more misleading statement than the old one that "Iron can be manufactured cheaper in the South." During the past decade ironmakers and users of iron have heard varied and sundry stories of the wonderful resources of the Birmingham district, including abundant ore and coal fields, cheap labor, a wonderful climate and similar industrial Utopian statements. Birmingham represents the major portion of the iron business in the South, and as Birmingham fares so goes the iron business of the South. The intent of this paper is to shed some light on the actual conditions surrounding ironmaking in the South, especially in the Birmingham, or North Alabama, district. By a presentation of facts it is desired to point out that the "cheap iron" of the industrial South is a thing of the past, primarily because of increased labor cost and because labor is radically different in performance to what it was years ago. Also, because most of the raw materials needed in ironmaking that would be classed better than inferior are gone. Important Factors The several important factors that have been responsible for this change are : 1. Shrinkage of the iron business in the South. 2. Increased labor cost. 3. The development of the South, with an industrial trend, without a substantial increase of its own iron-consuming market. 4. Increased freight rates, which has narrowed the market that might be reached from this district. 5. Depletion of the better grades of raw materials, both ore and coal. Shrinkage of Iron Business in South.—Table 1 was prepared in early 1936 and revised in 1937, of blast-furnace units in the North Alabama district, considering the year 1936 compared with a maximum number of furnace units of previous years, the peak point being very near the year

Jan 1, 1937

By Theodore Simons

I. INTRODUCTION PERMISSION to present this paper at the February, 1915, meeting of the Montana Section of the American Institute of Mining Engineers was liberally granted by W. A. Clark, Jr., President and General Manager of the Timber Butte Milling Co., and by the representative of the Minerals Separation Co. For the many courtesies shown the writer on his visits to the mill and for information supplied, he is indebted to all the officers of these companies, especially to W. N. Rossberg, W. D. Mangam, Hamilton Cooke, Jr., T. M. Owen, T. C. Wilson, R. McGillivary, L. L. Quigley, C. Bartzen and others. The writer takes this opportunity to herewith express to them his appreciation and sincere thanks.

Jan 6, 1915

By Herty, C. H.

Iron oxide (FeO) plays an extremely important part in the manufacture of iron and steel. In the three major processes- blast-furnace, open-hearth, and Bessemer converter-iron oxide is the chemically predominant compound and controls to a large ex- tent the operation of the furnaces and the composition and quality of their respective products. In order to emphasize the importance of iron oxide in each process, they will be considered individually in some detail. THE OPEN-HEARTH FURNACE. Iron oxide is introduced into the open-hearth furnace in four ways : 1. The scrap charged into the open hearth is oxidized by the furnace gases, the amount of oxide formed depending primarily on the amount and type of scrap charged. It has been found' that with large scrap, 1.7 Ib. of FeO is formed per 100 Ib. of scrap charged, whereas with scrap of medium size about 5.3 Ib. of FeO is formed per 100 Ib. of scrap charged, when the period between the charging of the scrap and the addition of hot metal is 3 hours. 2. The decomposition of the limestone sets free CO, by the reaction

Jan 1, 1957

By George A. Roberts

The development of an alloy system, high-speed steel, is used as an example of the progress of physical metallurgy. Tracing the history of men and their thoughts as they studied and invented and modified these materials, the story of high-speed steel since the 1890's is seen to be a long, slow, but steady progression of achievements. Today's multiplicity of high-speed steels are the result. Data are presented on quantitative metallography of carbides in high-speed steel with high vanadium content using the QTM instrument. Grindability as well as mechanical properties are related to the content of excess MC and M6C carbides in a series of high-speed steels and the newer matrix steels. These emphasize the present state of knowledge and show the current stages of thought that may affect the development in succeeding years. It is a great thrill for me, an ex-research metallurgist and ex-practicing metallurgical engineer, to speak to an audience currently engaged in both pursuits on the occasion of the 43rd Howe Memorial Lecture before the Iron and Steel Division of the AIME. I shall not review Henry Marion Howe's distinguished career, so adequately reviewed in Maxwell Gensamer's contribution in the 1965 AIME History of Metallurgy, except to point out that, while leading the life of an intellectual, he worked as a practicing research metallurgist and a practicing metallurgical engineer for significant periods of time and contributed greatly in both areas. For those of you who believe, as I do, that in the intellectual activity of metallurgy we are blessed with an intimate mixture of science and engineering (see Mehl's 1960 Howe Lecture), we might recall that Howe, while pursuing a life of writing and teaching in later years, served as the first Chairman of the Division of Engineering of the National Academy of Sciences. That metallurgists were called upon then to lead an engineering recognition movement is perhaps related to the strong part played by the AIME and its members in the recent establishment of a National Academy of Engineering and to the fact that a metallurgist is its head, 47 years after Howe served. I stress these engineering aspects for I wish to talk about a metallurgical engineering subject today. Alloy systems, physical metallurgy, and steel blended with an historical perspective and a report on new techniques to improve the old will, I trust, be of sufficient interest to bring these lectures back to the physical-metallurgy banner from which they have departed for 4 years. Those process metallurgists, open-hearth fiends, and physical chemists among you will just have to be patient. The development of an alloy system is the engineering application of scientific thought and fact. There are many interesting alloy systems, developed to a high degree of technology and sophistication over the past 40 to 70 years. These systems are bound together and related by a similar set of characteristics. For example, stainless steels are a system in which the members are related by a high chromium content which gives a corrosion-resistant characteristic. A subfamily in this system would be austenitic steels

Jan 1, 1967

By Walter H. Munk

Generation of Waves by storms, and the transformation of waves in shallow water by local bottom topography are briefly reviewed. A detailed description of water motion in waves explains the nature and distribution of wave forces. A numerical example dealing with forces and moments against vertical piles summarizes the principles involved. Introduction The oil industry is moving into the open waters of the Gulf of Mexico. The design and construction of offshore drilling rigs present a number of difficult problems, among them problems involving the action of waves on fixed and floating structures. This paper deals with our present knowledge of ocean waves as it pertains to these problems, and the principles involved in computing wave forces against fixed structures. It is hoped that the more difficult case pertaining to floating structures can be discussed at a later time. None of the engincering aspects of the problem are entered upon in this paper, yet an understanding of the principles presented here should be helpful in the solution of practical problems. Waves are capable of exerting almost unbelievable forces. During a gale, waves at the harbor entrance of Amsterdam Canal in Holland lifted a 20-ton concrete block, which was resting on the bottom in 12ft of water, and deposited it on top of a pier which was 5 ft above the high water mark. At Wick Breakwater in Scotland, a mass of large stones in cement and bound together with iron rods, weighing 1350 tons, was broken loose and moved bodily! But one need not go to Holland or Scotland to find evidence of damage that waves are capable of inflicting (Fig I and 2). What is the mechanism by which waves are capable of exerting such enormous forces? To answer this, we must consider briefly the nature of wave motion. When a wind blows over a wheat field, waves appear to travel across the field, whereas the wheat itself remains rooted, slowly swinging back and forth. Similarly, in the case of water waves, the waveform travels swiftly over the water surface, whereas the water particles oscillate back and forth, but scarcely advance. The speed of the wave form is called wave velocity, the speed of the water particles is called orbital velocity. This fundamental difference between wave velocity and orbital velocity was already recognized by Leonardo da Vinci. Orbital velocity is generally much slower than wave velocity except for a breaking wave, a case which is of particular importance in the application to engineering problems. Forces exerted by the waves on obstacles

Jan 1, 1949

By S. W. Poole, J. A. Rosa

The object of this investigation was to determine the distribution of chemical elements within a large, killed alloy-steel ingot, by sulphur printing and quantitative chemical analysis. With regard to segregation in steel ingots, the factors of melting practice, pouring temperatures, mold design, etc., and the mechanics of solidification and its attendant functions, have been the subject of intensive study over a period of years by many investigators. Notable among these is the Sub-committee of the No. 5 Committee of the British Iron and Steel Institute. For an exposition of the many problems awaiting the researcher on the heterogeneity of steel ingots, the methods of attacking these problems, together with some of the answers, the reader is referred to the nine reports and numerous papers of that committee and its membership. Steelmaking Data Melt.—The heat was made in a 70-ton direct arc-type basic electric furnace. Furnace charge consisted of nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel, most of it in the form of heavy mill scrap. All of the scrap was charged cold. The standard double-slag method was employed, the heat being finished under a strong carbide slag. Aluminum was used as the deoxidizing agent. Tapping tempera- ture, as observed with an optical pyrometer, was 3000°F. Detail of Mold and Ingot Size.—Details of the ingot mold and the ingot itself are given in Fig. I. Teeming.—Teeming temperature of the subject ingot as observed with an optical pyrometer was 2830°F. The ingot was top-poured directly through a 1 1/2-in. nozzle and required 7 min., 44 sec. to fill up to the hot top. An additional 2 min., 30 sec. were required to fill the hot top. The ingot was stripped hot and charged with the remainder of the heat into an annealing furnace. There it was given the standard annealing cycle used for these ingots. Subsequent heat-treatments are described elsewhere in this paper. Sectioning and Preparation for Sulphur Printing Because of previous favorable experience in sectioning ingots up to 21 1/2 in. square with an oxyacetylene torch, it was decided to use this method to section the subject ingot. The ingot was preheated to 900°F. for 12 hr. It was then placed on a steel bed in a horizontal position so that the longitudinal axis was level and parallel to the track of the motor-driven torch carrier. Two cuts were made, one 2 in. above the longitudinal axis and the other 2 in. below. The time required to make each cut was approximately 75 min. The cutting operation is shown in Figs. 2 and 3. The 4-in. thick slab was mmediately charged into a furnace standing at 1200F.

Jan 1, 1945

By A. Lubinski, J. L. Logan, W. S. Althouse

A4ost gas twells and flowing oil wells are completed and treated through a string of tubing and a packer. Changes in temperature and in pressure inside or outside the tubing will: (I) if free motion of the tubing inside the packer is permitted, increase or decrease the length of the rubing; or (2) if free motion is prevented, induce forces in the tubing and on the packer. If pressure inside the tubing is greater than outside, the tubing may buckle helically even in the presence of a packer-to-tubing tension. The tubing will always buckle, and much more severely, if free motion is permitted. The buckling may be prevented by pulling the tubing in sufficient tension. The prediction of these forces and tubing movement has here to fore been based upon calculations that did not inciude helical buckling. This paper preseitts means with which these length or force changes can be calculated while taking into account the effect of helical buckling. To avoid damaging formations, failure of remedial operations, or damage to the tubing or packer, application is made to practical problems involving calculations of the required length of seals, amount of sluckoff or tension, and prevention of permanent corkscrewing. INTRODUCTION Leakage of a packer may result in costly failures of such operations as squeeze cementing, hydraulic fracturing, etc. To avoid such failures, the authors are often asked questions pertaining to the length of necessary seals, the amount of necessary slackoff, etc. Published work' does not take into account helical buckling of tubing. Investigation of helical buckling was prompted by the fact that allowance must be made for this phenomenon in order to provide relevant answers. In the past, theoretical work on helical buckling was confined to conditions for which such buckling does not The mathematical treatment of behavior in a buckled condition, given in the Appendix, is novel. Assumptions upon which this investigation is based are listed and discussed in a special section. The following are a few of the many kinds of problems which may be solved with this paper. 1. Consider a packer in which tubing may move. Such movement will occur after pressures and temperature are changed. The paper provides means for: (a) calculating the amount of such movement and, therefore. the required length of seals; and (b) calculating the necessary amount of initial slackoff, for which there is no danger of unsealing the packer, if the length of seals is given. Such calculations, as well as those which follow, tully take into account the fact that part of the movement ib due to elastic helical buckling of the lower part of the string. This buckling may occur even in tubing under tension. Insufficient initial slackoff for a given length of seals, or insufficient length of seals for a given slackoff, may result in costly failures. A field case of such a failure will be given further in this paper. 2. In the case in which tubing cannot move in the packer, changes of pressure and temperature result in tubing-to-packer forces and forces in the tubing above the packer, both of which may be calculated. This knowledge is important because, if these forces are too large, the) could damage the packer or the tubing. 3. For wells in which wireline tools are to be run through the tubing, the paper provides means to keep the tubing from buckling, thereby permitting free passage of tools. 4. In deep wells, mainly in the presence of large casing, tubing may become "corkscrewed", i.e., take a permanent helical set. A field case is described further in the text. Using this paper, one may calculate in advance conditions under which permanent corkscrewing would occur, and then take preventive steps. HELICAL BUCKLING Consider a string of tubing, freely suspended in the absence of any fluid inside casing, as shown in Fig. I(a). Now consider an upward force F applied at the lower end of this tubing. This force compresses the string; and if the compression is large enough (which is always the case in actual problems), the lower portion of the string will buckle into a helix, as shown in Fig. 1 (b). The lower end of the tubing is subjected to a compression F. This compression decreases with the distance from the bottom and becomes nil (neither compression nor ten-

By Robert B Sosman

The relative temperature distribution within a coke oven and among the ovens in a battery can be obtained automatically for the operator's guidance by sighting a total-radiation pyrometer on the face of the coke as it is pushed out, and recording the surface temperature. Keeping the instrument clean and keeping its view of the coke unobstructed by smoke and dust are the principal problems. Typical records from three plants are presented in this paper, showing that the temperature patterns are reproducible. Development OF Method The method of coke pyrometry described in this paper was introduced in 1936 by E. A. Lee, then Assistant Superintendent, now Superintendent, of the Coke Plant at Lorain Works, National Tube Co., Lorain, Ohio. At the request of the Coke Committee of the United States Steel Corporation, the Research Laboratory of the Corporation undertook to adapt the method to the somewhat different conditions met with at the Gary Works of the Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation, Gary, Ind., and at the Clairton Works of the same Corporation at Clairton, Pa. This work was done in cooperation with the Leeds and Northrup Co. of Philadelphia and later with the Brown Instrument Co. Division of Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., Philadelphia. We of the Research Laboratory wish to express our appreci- ation of the courtesies extended by Mr. Lee, by A. N. Cole, Superintendent of the Gary coke plant, and by D. P. Finney, Assistant General Superintendent in charge of coke-plant operations at Clairton. We are also indebted to the instrument companies for the loan of a part of the equipment. At Gary and Clairton the instruments were installed and various experiments were made by J. W. Bain, of the Research Laboratory of the United States Steel Corporation. Pyrometry of Coke The coke inside a by-product oven is almost completely inaccessible to pyro-metric instruments. The temperature in the walls can conceivably be measured with thermocouples, but the atmosphere is usually strongly reducing, a condition well known to be destructive to the accuracy of the customary high-temperature couples. In some plants, periodic readings are taken with an optical pyrometer sighted into the top of the combustion flues. This is a useful measure for safety and general control, as it tends to prevent the damage that would result from overheating of the ovens. It does not, however, tell much about the temperature of the coke itself, because of the continually changing gradient in the wall between the coke and the combustion chamber. The best indication of the temperature of the coke itself must therefore be obtained by observation of the product as it is pushed out of the oven. The human eye is very sensitive to variations in brightness of a surface, and particularly to differences in brightness over a continuous hot surface.

Jan 1, 1943

By Robert B. Sosman

The relative temperature distribution within a coke oven and among the ovens in a battery can be obtained automatically for the operator's guidance by sighting a total-radiation pyrometer on the face of the coke as it is pushed out, and recording the surface temperature. Keeping the instrument clean and keeping its view of the coke unobstructed by smoke and dust are the principal problems. Typical records from three plants are presented in this paper, showing that the temperature patterns are reproducible. Development OF Method The method of coke pyrometry described in this paper was introduced in 1936 by E. A. Lee, then Assistant Superintendent, now Superintendent, of the Coke Plant at Lorain Works, National Tube Co., Lorain, Ohio. At the request of the Coke Committee of the United States Steel Corporation, the Research Laboratory of the Corporation undertook to adapt the method to the somewhat different conditions met with at the Gary Works of the Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation, Gary, Ind., and at the Clairton Works of the same Corporation at Clairton, Pa. This work was done in cooperation with the Leeds and Northrup Co. of Philadelphia and later with the Brown Instrument Co. Division of Minneapolis-Honeywell Regulator Co., Philadelphia. We of the Research Laboratory wish to express our appreci- ation of the courtesies extended by Mr. Lee, by A. N. Cole, Superintendent of the Gary coke plant, and by D. P. Finney, Assistant General Superintendent in charge of coke-plant operations at Clairton. We are also indebted to the instrument companies for the loan of a part of the equipment. At Gary and Clairton the instruments were installed and various experiments were made by J. W. Bain, of the Research Laboratory of the United States Steel Corporation. Pyrometry of Coke The coke inside a by-product oven is almost completely inaccessible to pyro-metric instruments. The temperature in the walls can conceivably be measured with thermocouples, but the atmosphere is usually strongly reducing, a condition well known to be destructive to the accuracy of the customary high-temperature couples. In some plants, periodic readings are taken with an optical pyrometer sighted into the top of the combustion flues. This is a useful measure for safety and general control, as it tends to prevent the damage that would result from overheating of the ovens. It does not, however, tell much about the temperature of the coke itself, because of the continually changing gradient in the wall between the coke and the combustion chamber. The best indication of the temperature of the coke itself must therefore be obtained by observation of the product as it is pushed out of the oven. The human eye is very sensitive to variations in brightness of a surface, and particularly to differences in brightness over a continuous hot surface.

Jan 1, 1943

Jan 1, 1965

By Alden B. Greninger, Alexander R. Troiano

THE crystallographic mechanism for the austenite-to-martensite transformation has been deduced from the results of the following new experimental determinations: (I) the accurate evaluation of the lattice relationship between austenite and individual crystals of martensite-and thus the relationship between the martensite lattice and the martensite plate, and (2) the measurement and analysis of the change in positions that a volume of austenite undergoes when it transforms into a crystal of martensite. For the latter study, a new tool was developed, the stereographic analysis of shear. Lattice relationship.-Thirty-five separate 50-gram melts of an alloy containing about 22 per cent nickel and 0.8 per cent carbon were prepared in a high-vacuum furnace. This alloy is all-austenite at room temperature; grain size was about I cm. Specimens of the alloy were cooled to about -70°C. to form a few martensite crystals, and suitable specimens were ground and polished on a surface parallel to a single martensite plate, exposing the martensite crystal for an area of I mm. or more. Four martensite cystals from four different ingots were prepared in this manner; the largest crystal of this group is illustrated in Fig. I. Back-reflection Lane patterns were obtained from martensite [ ] crystals (and the matrix austenite) both before and after tempering. The locations of the basal-plane pole of martensite was checked by means of oscillating crystal X-ray patterns. All four crystals studied yielded the same solution (±0.5°), and these relationships are expressed in gnomonic projection in Fig. 3.* The narrow dark-etching bands often visible in martensite "needles" were found to be parallel to {112} and thus are undoubtedly twin bands in the martensite crystal.

Jan 1, 1941

On the Art of Metallography (Howe Memorial Lecture), by F. F. Lucas; Beneficiation of Iron Ore. Abstract of paper by C. E. Williams followed by Round Table Discussion; A Statistical Analysis of Blast-furnace Data, by R. 8. McCaffery and R. G. Stephenson; Air Discharge of Circular Tuyeres, by R. S. McCaffery and D. E. Krause; Open-hearth Steel Process as a Problem in Chemical Kinetics. by E. R. Jette; Carbon-oxygen Equilibrium in Liquid Iron, by H. C. Vacher and E. H. Hamilton; A Thermodynamic Study of the Phasial Equilibria in the Bystem Iron-carbon (Abstract), by Yap, Chu-Phay; Influence of Dissolved Carbide on the Equilibria of the System Iron-carbon (Abstract), by Yap, Chu-Phay; Inclusions and Their Effect on Impact Strength of Steel, I and 11, by A. B. Kinzel and W. Crafts: Method for Electrolytic Extraction of MnO, MnS, FeS and Si02, Inclusions from Plain Carbon Steels, by G. R. Fitterer; Permanent Growth of Gray Cast Iron, by W. E. Remmers; Some Notes on Blue Brittleness, by L. R. van Wert; Austenite-pearlite Transformation and the Transition Constituents, by A. Sauveur; Age-hardening of Austenite, by F. R. Hensel; Transformational Characteristics of Iron-manganese Alloys, by H. Scott; Composition Limits of the Alpha-gamma Loop in the Iron-tungsten System, by W. P. Sykes; Magnetic Properties Versus AUotropic Transformations of Iron Alloys, by T. D. Yensen and N. A. Ziegler; Dilatometric Study of Chrome-nickel-iron Alloys, by V. N. Krivobok and M. Gensamer; Low-carbon Steel, by H. B. Pulsifer; Bright Annealing of Steels in Hydrogen, by F. C. KeUey; Development of Continuous Gas Carburieing, by R. J. Cowan. Transactions, Institute of Metals Division, 1931. 500 pages. Index. Papers and discussions presented before the Division at Chicago, Sept. 22-26, 1930 and New York, Feb. 16-19, 1931. X-ray MetallograpIhy: X-ray Determination of Alloy Equilibrium Diagrams (Annual Lecture), by A. F. Westgren; Suppressed Constitutional Changes in Alloys. by G. Sachs; Texture of Metals after Cold Deformation; by F. Wever. Theoretical Metallurgy: Studies upon the Widmanatitten Structure. I.—Introduction. The Aluminum-eilver System and the Copper-silicon System; by R. F. Mehl and C. S. Barrett; Studies upon the Widmanstatten Structure, 11.—The Beta Copper-einc Alloys and the Beta Copper-alumnum Alloys, by R. F. Mehl and 0. T. Mareke; Application of X-rays in the Manufacture of Telephone Apparatus, by M. Baeyerts; Thermal Conductivity of Copper Alloys. 11.—Copper-tin Alloys; 111.—Copper-phosphorus Alloys, by Cyril Stanley Smith; Thermodynamic Study of the Equilibria of the Systems Antimony-bismuth and Antimony-lead, by Yap, Chu-Phay. Ganeral: Cemented Tungsten Carbide; a Study of the Action of the Cementing Material, by L. L. Wyman and F. C. Kelley; Influence of Casting Practice on Physical Properties of Die Castings, by C. Pack; Fabrication of the Platinum Metals, by C. S. Sivil; Effect of Certain Alloying Elements on Structure and Hardness of Aluminum Bronze, by 9. F. Hermann and F. T. Sisco. The WorkinG oF Metals: Metal Working in Power Presses, by E. V. Crane; Forming Properties of Thin Sheets of Some Nonferrous Metals, by W. A. Straw, M. D. Helfrick and C. R. Fischrupp; Die Pressing of Braas and Copper Alloys, by J. R. Freeman. Jr.; Plasticity of Copper-sina Alloys at Elevated Temperatures. by A. Morris: Directional Properties in Cold-rolled and Annealed Copper, by A. Phillips and E. 9. Bunn; Effect of Combinations of Strain and Heat Treatment on Properties of Some Age-hardening Copper Alloys by W. C. Ellis and E. E. Schumacher; Constituents of Aluminum-iron-silicon Alloys, by W, L. Fink and K. R. Van Horn; Equilibrium Relations in Aluminum-antimony Alloys of High Purity, by E. H. Dix, Jr., F. KeUer and L. A. Willey; Equilibrium Relations in Aluminum-magnesium Silicide Alloys of High Purity, by E. H. Dix. Jr., F. Keller and R. W. Graham; Constitution of High-purity Aluminum-titanium Alloys, by W. L. Fink, K. R. Van Horn and P. M. Budge; Experiments on Retarding the Age-hardening of Duralumin, by E. H. Dix. Jr. and F. KeUer; Aluminum-silicon-magnesium Casting Alloys, by R. S. Archer and L. W. Kempf; Modulurr of Elasticity of Aluminum Alloys, by R. L. Templin and D. A. Paul; Quenching of Alclad Sheet in Oil, by H. C. Knerr.

Jan 1, 1931