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By Y. A. Chang

Phase relationships in the system Cr-Si have been established based on the melting point, X-ray, metallo-graphic, and DTA studies. The three intermediate phases, Cr3Si, Cr5Si,, and CrSi,, melt congruently at 177V ± I@,Cr3Si, 1680"i 20°, and 1490" *20°C, respectively, while the fourth intermediate phase CrSi, melts peritectically at 1413" i 5°C to Cr5Si3 and a melt containing 51 at. pct Si. The temperatures and compositions of the four eutectic isotherms occurring in this system are given below: DTA and metallographic evidences indicate that Cr5Si, undergoes a phase transformation at 1505" i20°C. The high-temperature form of this phase could not be retained by the quenching techniques used in this study. TECHNOLOGICAL interest in the developing of composite systems, consisting of Sic on the one hand as a fiber-reinforced material and metallic substances such as chromium, nickel, or Cr-Ni alloys as a binding agent on the other hand, stimulated the present investigation of phase relationships in the binary system Cr-Si. Earlier works concerning this system have been evaluated and summarized by ansen and Anderko.' Their phase diagram was based mainly on the works of Kieffer, Benesovsky, and schroth2 and Kurnakov.~ According to these authors, the three intermediate phases Cr3Si, CrSi, and CrSi, all melt congruently at approximately 1730°, 1600°, and 1550°C. However, they did not agree on the compositional stability of the fourth intermediate phase between Cr3Si and CrSi. Later Parthe, Nowotny, and schmid4 determined the structure of this phase to be tetragonal T-1 type using the single-crystal method, and concluded that this phase had a formula of Cr5Si3. Since the compilation of Hansen and Anderko,' a new phase diagram for the system Cr-Si has been proposed by Elliott5 based on the works of Goldschmidt and rand,' Guseva and ~vechkin,~ and Trusova, Kuzev, and Ormont8 and the earlier works quoted by Hansen and Anderko.' According to this proposed phase diagram, all four intermediate phases have large ranges of homogeneity and all melt congruently. More recently, Svechnikov, Kocherzhinskii, and yupkog studied the system Cr-Si by the DTA-method. According to their findings, the three intermediate phases, Cr3Si, Cr5Si3, and CrSi,, melt congruently at 1700°, 1720°, and 1475"C, respectively, while the fourth intermediate phase, CrSi, melts peritectically at 1475°C to Cr5Si3 and a melt containing 50 at. pct Si. The temperatures and compositions of the four eutectic isotherms were found to be: In view of the discrepancies existing in the literature concerning the system Cr-Si, it was decided to rein-vestigate the phase relationships in this system. EXPERIMENTAL a) Starting Materials. Chromium disilicide and chromium or silicon powders were used in the present study to prepare the melting point and DTA samples. CrSi, was obtained by directly reacting cold-pressed elemental powders in an atmosphere of Hz at a temperature of about 1250°C. Chromium powder, purchased from Stark Chemical Co., had the following impurities in ppm: Fe, 200; Mg, 1000; and 0, 250; while silicon powder, purchased from the Welded Carbide Co., had the following impurities in ppm: Ca, 700; and Fe, 3500. b) Melting-Point Determination and Differential Thermal Analysis. Cylindrical melting-point samples of approximately 13 mm in diam and 30 mm in length with a rectangular groove in the center were prepared by hot-pressing of well-mixed powder mixtures in graphite dies. Before the melting-point determination, the hot-pressed samples were ground on a sand paper to remove any minute surface contamination of graphite. A small hole of 1 mm in diam, drilled on the center portion of the samples, served as a blackbody cavity for the temperature measurements. DTA samples approximately 13 mm in diam and 15 mm in length were prepared in a manner similar to the melting-point samples. Melting points were determined using the Pirani technique under a helium atmosphere of 40 psi. The design, performance, and operation of this apparatus have been described in detail by Rudy and ~ro~ulski.'~ The temperature measurements were carried out with a calibrated disappearing-filament-type micro-pyrometer. The measured temperature was corrected for losses from the quartz window of the melting-point furnace and for deviations from blackbody conditions of the observation hole. The procedure for temperature correction has also been previously described." The DTA method of Heetderks, Rudy and Eckertl' was also used to check any phase transformations of selected alloys in the system Cr-Si. It was not possible to make remated runs on the same sample once melt-

Jan 1, 1969

ECONOMICS In the preceding pages you will find an attempt to judge the direction of one phase of the mining industry in Drift, and following that a quick round up of what happened to production in 1958 in Trends. Next, Charles Merrill presents a comprehensive price history for the mineral products of greatest importance, complete with figures for the past 50 years. On the following pages Nathaniel Arbiter and Charles Will Wright take a look at price trend prospects and the cold war in mining, respectively. MINERALS BENEFICIATION Fifty years progress is reviewed as a springboard for a look ahead. In the past decade the art has moved forward, but the author fears that the science is not progressing as promisingly.

Jan 2, 1959

By CHRIS A. HARTNAGEL

For the second consecutive year, the production of crude petroleum in New York has fallen below the 5,000,000-bbl. Mark that had prevailed previously since 1937. In 1945, the output totaled 4,658,000 bbl., a decrease of slightly more, than one per cent from the 1944 production. This total represents 2 per cent of the stripper-well production of the United States, which in turn is I 3 per cent of the total annual yield of the nation's petroleum.

Jan 1, 1946

By D. G. Westlake, E. S. Fisher

The habit planes for zirconium hydride precipitation in crystals of a zirconium have been determined at various hydrogen concentrations. The (10 • 0)planes are the predominant habit planes; some (10 • 5) and (10 -1) planes were observed after charging conditions which pevmitted formation of a surface layer of hydride. No platelets zrlere observed parallel to any of the twinning planes. Mechanisms for em-brittlement due to hydride precipitation are discussed. LANGERON and Lehr1 found, in 1956, that zirconium hydride precipitates in zirconium in platelets lying parallel to (10.0) slip planes. In 1960, Kunz and Bibbz reported observing the platelets in three different families of twinning planes, (10.2) {11.1), and {11.2), but never in the slip planes. The present study was undertaken to ascertain the cause of these seemingly contradictory results. EXPERIMENTAL Two specimens of iodide zirconium were used in the experiments. Specimen I was a single crystal, while specimen II contained three grains. Grain growth was accomplished by the technique of Lange-ron and Lehr. Three faces were ground on specimen I; the first was 2 deg from the (00.1) basal plane, a second was 2 deg from the (10.0) prism plane, and a third was 4 deg from the (12.0) plane. One face was ground on specimen II such that the poles of the surfaces of crystals A, B, and C were as shown in Fig. 1. After the faces were ground on 600 grit silicon carbide paper, they were chemically polished by dipping in a solution of 8 parts hydrofluoric acid, 50 parts nitric acid, and 50 parts water. This removed all cold worked metal from the surface. The samples were charged to various levels of hydrogen content by heating in hydrogen gas which had been purified by reaction with uranium powder. The various charging conditions are shown in Table I. Specimen I was heated to the reaction temperature at the indicated hydrogen pressure and allowed to react until essentially all the hydrogen was used up. Then the temperature was raised for homogenization. Specimen II was charged by making periodic addi-

Jan 1, 1962

By Chester A. Fulton

SUPPLYING as it does a necessity for healthy animal and vegetable phosphate production is a most important industry. We human beings also are animal as this war so surely proves. Unlike many other elements no substitnite is available for phosphorus or its compounds. Marvelous as are modern plastics none can lake the place of phosphorus in making hone structures. As meassured in these times the phosphate industry is not a large industry. Output of phosphate rock, the original source of our agricultural and ,chemical phophates amounts to only some twelve million long tons per annum in the entire world. Phosphates are compounds of phosphorus, which is always found in nature combined with other elements. It never occurs in nature as such. The first choice of the element phosphorus is tie itself strongly to oxygen and then to water moisture - thus becomeing phosphlic acid. This phosphoric acid in turn hunts around for a base such as lime for instance and together they make phosphate of lime.

Jan 1, 1944

By T. Reed Scollon

Coal reserves of the Rocky Mountain area are vast and are more than adequate to meet significantly increasing demands in the immediate future. Practically all of the increase in coal demand for the next decade or so will be in the electric power utility sector. All ranks of coal are available in the area, and from a technological viewpoint, all are suitable for electric power generation. Location of economically recoverable coal deposits, location of generating plants with respect to power demand areas and sources of cooling water, and availability and price of other fuels are the major factors which, individually or in combination, will determine the ultimate selection of Western coal deposits to be developed for electric power generation. The low sulfur content of most western coals and the non-urban location of many power plants should tend to minimize problems of air pollution. If projections for nuclear power prove correct, increases in demand for Rocky Mountain area coals beyond about 1980 will depend primarily on the extent of commercial development of synthetic fuel processes. Current research activities on the conversion of coal to liquid and gaseous fuels are promising. Most western coals range in rank from lignite through high-volatile bituminous coals and are particularly amenable to conversion. Vast reserves of Rocky Mountain coals have long lain dormant primarily because of their remoteness from major market areas. Recently, however, innovations in coal transportation and electric power transmission methods, combined with unprecedented demands for electric power in the West, have resulted in large-scale development of some of these coals. In the past few years, announcements of coal mine openings and transportation plans in the Southwest have been filled with superlatives: The Navajo mine in northwest New Mexico is expected to be the largest mine in the country in the near future. The largest single coal agreement ever made provides for coal shipment from northeast Arizona to Nevada via the largest and longest coal-slurry pipeline ever used. An 1100-mile haul of coking coal from northern New Mexico to California by unit train began last year. It is the purpose of this report to evaluate the coal resources of the Rocky Mountain area, and to project their potential utilization. In projecting energy demand levels on a national basis, the Bureau of Mines has developed some rather complex techniques to cope with uncertainties. Using these same techniques, an estimate has been made of consumption of Mountain area coal in 1980. No attempt was made to estimate coal consumption beyond 1980, but new market potentials are discussed briefly. The present and potential coal-producing fields of the Rocky Mountain area are in six states comprising the Mountain Region - Arizona, Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming. Since approximately 19% of the coal produced in these fields is shipped to the Pacific Region (Washington, Oregon, Cali-

Jan 1, 1969

By W. S. Pellini, F. N. Rhines

IN many of the otherwise well established alloy phase diagrams the solidus curves (temperatures at which liquid first appears upon melting) have not been located accurately, chiefly because the experimental techniques that have been most popular for determining solidus temperatures have been both cumbersome and subject to large errors. C. E. Homer and H. Plummer1 have described a sensitive and at the same time a very simple technique for locating the solidus curves in a number of alloys of tin. Their method consists simply in noting the temperature at which a specimen of the alloy ruptures under the influence of a light bending force. Although this method is not new, it has been little used for this purpose in the past; nevertheless, it appears so attractive in its possibilities of speed, simplicity, and precision that the investigations presently to be described were undertaken to verify its merits. The redetermination of the solidus and eutectic temperatures of the lead-antimony system was employed as a medium 0f experimentation. New values obtained in this way are believed to be sufficiently precise to warrant a revision of the currently accepted lead-antimony phase diagram (Fig. I). Determinations of the solidus of the lead-rich lead-antimony alloy series have been published by R. S. Dean2 and by E. E. Schumacher and F. C. Nix.3 Their points are represented in Fig. I. In their work the solidus was not located at antimony concentrations greater than 2 per cent; the curve was presumed to meet the eutectic horizontal at an antimony concentration of about 2.5 per cent. In the present studies the solidus has been traced to 3.5 per cent, where the eutectic horizontal is intersected (Table I and Fig. I). Within the range investigated by Dean and by Schumacher and Nix the agreement with their values is good. H. Seltz and B. De Witt,4 on the basis of activity measurements, have calculated that the intersection of the solidus and the eutectic reaction horizontal should lie at 3.86 per cent of antimony. The following determinations of the eutectic temperature have been reported: Roland-Gosselin,5 228°C.; Ewen,6 228°C.; J. E. Stead,7 247°C.; Campbell,8 228°C.; W. Gontermann,9 245° to 252°C.; R. Loebe,10 245°C.; E. Heyn and 0. Bauer,11 245°C.; H. Endo,12 250°C.; R. S. Dean,2 249° to 258°C.; E. Abel, 0. Redlich, and J. Adler,13 245°C.; W. Broniewski and L. Sliwowski,14 250° to 252°C.; H. Seltz and B. De Witt,4 250°C. A temperature of 249°C- appears to have been generally accepted in recent years; it is the value most frequently obtained by the method of cooling curves. Values below 249°C. have usually been obtained by inferior cooling-curve techniques; those above 250°C., by the method of heating

Jan 1, 1942

By F. N. Rhines, W. S. Pellini

In many of the otherwise well established alloy phase diagrams the solidus curves (temperatures at which liquid first appears upon melting) have not been located accurately, chiefly because the experimental techniques that have been most popular for determining solidus temperatures have been both cumbersome and subject to large errors. C. E. Homer and H. Plummerl have described a sensitive and at the same time a very simple technique for locating the solidus curves in a number of alloys of tin. Their method consists simply in noting the temperature at which a specimen of the alloy ruptures under the influence of a light bending force. Although this method is not new, it has been little used for this purpose in the past; nevertheless, it appears so attractive in its possibilities of speed, simplicity, and precision that the investigations presently to be described were undertaken to verify its merits. The redetermination of the solidus and eutectic temperatures of the lead-antimony system was employed as a medium of experimentation. New values obtained in this way are believcd to be sufficiently precise to warrant a revision of the currently accepted lead-antimony phase diagram (Fig. I). Determinations of the solidus of the lead-rich lead-antimony alloy series have been published by X. S. Dean2 and by E. E. Schumacher and F. C. Nix. Their points are represented in Fig. I. In their work the solidus was not located at antimony collcentrations greater than 2 per cent; the curve was presumed to meet the eutectic horizontal at an antimony concentration of about 2.5 per cent. In the present studies the solidus has been traced to 3.5 per cent, where the eutectic horizontal is intersected (Table I and Fig. I). Within the range investigated by Dean and by Schumacher and Nix the agreement with their values is good. H. Seltz and B. De Witt,4 on the basis of activity measurements, have calculated that the intersection of the solidus and the eutectic reaction horizontal should lie at 3.86 per cent of antimony. The following determinations of the eutectic temperature have been reported: Roland-Gosselin,5 228°C.; Ewen,6 228OC.; J. E. Stead,7 24g°C.; Campbell,8 228°C.; W. Gontermann,9 245' to 252°C.; R. Loebe,lo 245°C.; E. Heyn and 0. Bauer,ll 245°C.; H. Endo,12 250°C.; R. S. Dean,= 247' to 258°C.; E. Abel, O. Redlich, and J. Adier,13 245°C.; W. Broniewski and L. Sliwowski,14 250' to 252°C.; H. Seltz and B. De Witt,4 25o°C. A temperature of 247°C. appears to have been generally accepted in recent years; it is the value most frequently obtained by the method of cooling curves. Values below 247°C. have usually been obtained by inferior cooling-curve techniques; those above 250°C., by the method of heating

Jan 1, 1943

By W. S. Pellini, F. N. Rhines

In many of the otherwise well established alloy phase diagrams the solidus curves (temperatures at which liquid first appears upon melting) have not been located accurately, chiefly because the experimental techniques that have been most popular for determining solidus temperatures have been both cumbersome and subject to large errors. C. E. Homer and H. Plummerl have described a sensitive and at the same time a very simple technique for locating the solidus curves in a number of alloys of tin. Their method consists simply in noting the temperature at which a specimen of the alloy ruptures under the influence of a light bending force. Although this method is not new, it has been little used for this purpose in the past; nevertheless, it appears so attractive in its possibilities of speed, simplicity, and precision that the investigations presently to be described were undertaken to verify its merits. The redetermination of the solidus and eutectic temperatures of the lead-antimony system was employed as a medium of experimentation. New values obtained in this way are believcd to be sufficiently precise to warrant a revision of the currently accepted lead-antimony phase diagram (Fig. I). Determinations of the solidus of the lead-rich lead-antimony alloy series have been published by X. S. Dean2 and by E. E. Schumacher and F. C. Nix. Their points are represented in Fig. I. In their work the solidus was not located at antimony collcentrations greater than 2 per cent; the curve was presumed to meet the eutectic horizontal at an antimony concentration of about 2.5 per cent. In the present studies the solidus has been traced to 3.5 per cent, where the eutectic horizontal is intersected (Table I and Fig. I). Within the range investigated by Dean and by Schumacher and Nix the agreement with their values is good. H. Seltz and B. De Witt,4 on the basis of activity measurements, have calculated that the intersection of the solidus and the eutectic reaction horizontal should lie at 3.86 per cent of antimony. The following determinations of the eutectic temperature have been reported: Roland-Gosselin,5 228°C.; Ewen,6 228OC.; J. E. Stead,7 24g°C.; Campbell,8 228°C.; W. Gontermann,9 245' to 252°C.; R. Loebe,lo 245°C.; E. Heyn and 0. Bauer,ll 245°C.; H. Endo,12 250°C.; R. S. Dean,= 247' to 258°C.; E. Abel, O. Redlich, and J. Adier,13 245°C.; W. Broniewski and L. Sliwowski,14 250' to 252°C.; H. Seltz and B. De Witt,4 25o°C. A temperature of 247°C. appears to have been generally accepted in recent years; it is the value most frequently obtained by the method of cooling curves. Values below 247°C. have usually been obtained by inferior cooling-curve techniques; those above 250°C., by the method of heating

Jan 1, 1943

By John T. Cumberlidge, Frederic M. Chace

Nickel-bearing saprolite developed during the early Tertiary over a northeast trending ultramafic body of Jurassic age near Riddle in southwestern Oregon. The principal nickel mineral is garnierite, but other complex nickel minerals may be present. There are two main ore bodies, an upper (older) one associated with the Klamath peneplain, and a lower (younger) one on the Sherwood peneplain. Saprolite constitutes the bulk of the ore and was probably derived from peridotite and dunite through chemical decomposition by downward percolating meteoric groundwater. Decomposition took place by net loss of MgO, SiO2, and Fe without a change in volume. Faults and joints provided permeable zones which localized saprolite development, and faulting may have helped preserve some ore from loss by erosion. Garnierite-chalcedony boxwork ore was deposited by meteoric groundwater along faults, joints, and at the level of former water tables. Boxwork ore is entirely supergene, the chemical constituents having been derived from higher in the soil profile. The saprolites show evidence of both supergene and residual enrichment in nickel. Red and yellow soil occurs as a capping over saprolite and boxwork, and was derived from them by chemical and mechanical decomposition. The present deposits are probably truncated remnants of a formerly thicker and much more extensive deposit which probably included laterite at the surface. The deposits started to form in the early Tertiary due to deep chemical weathering under sub-tropical to warmtemperature conditions. Early Tertiary ero~ion surfaces of low relief probably contributed to the predominance of chemical weathering over mechanical erosion. Alteration under present climatic conditions favors the formation of soil from saprolite rather than the formation of new saprolite from peridotite.

Jan 1, 1968

By Albert Zima

ACCORDING to recently published statistics, it is predicted that as much oil must be produced during the next 16 years as has been produced during the past 75, in order to satisfy the high rate of consumption of petroleum products. During 1934, over 17,000 oil wells were completed in the United States, and it is expected that over 20,000 additional wells will be drilled during the current year. Were it not for the remarkable progress made during recent years in the improvement of drilling technique and in the development of equipment used in the production phase of the oil industry, it is doubtful whether sufficient oil could be produced to meet present requirements. A few years ago, wells seldom were deeper than 3500 to 4000 ft., owing to the limitations of the drilling methods and equipment employed. Today, however, through the application of scientific drilling methods and the adaptation of modern equipment and improved materials, many wells range from 6000 to 8000 ft, in depth, and a few recent completions exceed 10,000 feet.

Jan 1, 1935

By Henry Mulryan

THE largest and purest known deposit of diatomite is being actively mined and processed 3 ½ miles south of Lompoc, Santa Barbara County, Calif., by the Johns-Manville Products Corporation. The workings FIG. 1.-LOCATION OF DIATOMITE DEPOSIT AT LOMPOC. cover 4000 acres, the depth of economically recoverable diatomite being 1000 ft. (Fig. 1). Lompoc, a community of 2500 population, is situated in the Santa Ynez River Valley 10 miles inland from the Pacific Ocean. It is 44 miles

Jan 1, 1936

By Alfred H. Bell, George V. Cohee

In 1941 Illinois produced 134,139,000 bbl. of oil, or 9.5 per cent of the total for the United States, and ranked fourth among the states. The production for 1941 declined 9.2 per cent from the previous year's total of 147,647,000 bbl. Daily average production for 1941 was 366,000 bbl. At the beginning of the year daily production was slightly more than 326,000 bbl. and it remained at appoximately that amount until June, when there was a slight increase. The increase continued until the peak of 431,260 bbl. daily was reached for the week ending Oct. 4. Daily average production at the end of the year was approximately 387,500 barrels. The increased production during the last half of 1941 was largely due to the rapid development of the Johnsonville field, Wayne County, the Rural Hill field, Hamilton County, and the Benton field, Franklin County—new fields discovered in the current year (Fig' 1)—and the Woodlawn pool, discovered in 1940. Discoveries In 19 counties in southern Illinois, 44 new fields were discovered in 1941 (Fig. 2 and Table 2), and extensions to 40 fields were successfully completed (Table 3). At the end of the year there were 10,496 wells in the fields discovered since Jan. I, '937, as compared with 71965 wells at the end Of '940. The area proved for production in the new fields increased from 78,040 acres at the beginning of 1941 to 97,483 acres at the end of the year (Table I)—an increase of 19,433 acres, of which 9,955 acres are in the fields discovered during the current year, and the remainder of 9,478 acres in extensions to pools discovered earlier. Drilling During the past year, 3838 wells were completed in Illinois (Table 4), of which 2912 were oil producers, 13 were gas producers and 913 were dry holes; 76 per cent of the wells drilled were producers. Of the total number drilled, 591 wells are classified as "wildcat" and of these 84 (1 in 7) were successful in obtaining production. The results of an investigation to ascer-tain the reason for the locations of the wildcat wells are set forth in Table 5. Of the 591 wildcat wells, the 292 known to have been located by scientific methods were 21.6 per cent successful. The total footage of wildcat wells drilled in 1941 was 1,341,743 ft., of which a total of 216,995 ft. was drilled in successful wells. Exploration MEthods Subsurface geology and geophysics, largely the reflection seismograph, are still the principal methods used in exploration and development in the state. The number of seismograph parties operating throughout the year was as follows: seven parties on Jan. I, 1941; five on Apr. I; four On July I; eight on Oct. I; fifteen on Jan. 1: 1942.

Jan 1, 1942

By Alfred H. Bell, George V. Cohee

In 1941 Illinois produced 134,139,000 bbl. of oil, or 9.5 per cent of the total for the United States, and ranked fourth among the states. The production for 1941 declined 9.2 per cent from the previous year's total of 147,647,000 bbl. Daily average production for 1941 was 366,000 bbl. At the beginning of the year daily production was slightly more than 326,000 bbl. and it remained at appoximately that amount until June, when there was a slight increase. The increase continued until the peak of 431,260 bbl. daily was reached for the week ending Oct. 4. Daily average production at the end of the year was approximately 387,500 barrels. The increased production during the last half of 1941 was largely due to the rapid development of the Johnsonville field, Wayne County, the Rural Hill field, Hamilton County, and the Benton field, Franklin County—new fields discovered in the current year (Fig' 1)—and the Woodlawn pool, discovered in 1940. Discoveries In 19 counties in southern Illinois, 44 new fields were discovered in 1941 (Fig. 2 and Table 2), and extensions to 40 fields were successfully completed (Table 3). At the end of the year there were 10,496 wells in the fields discovered since Jan. I, '937, as compared with 71965 wells at the end Of '940. The area proved for production in the new fields increased from 78,040 acres at the beginning of 1941 to 97,483 acres at the end of the year (Table I)—an increase of 19,433 acres, of which 9,955 acres are in the fields discovered during the current year, and the remainder of 9,478 acres in extensions to pools discovered earlier. Drilling During the past year, 3838 wells were completed in Illinois (Table 4), of which 2912 were oil producers, 13 were gas producers and 913 were dry holes; 76 per cent of the wells drilled were producers. Of the total number drilled, 591 wells are classified as "wildcat" and of these 84 (1 in 7) were successful in obtaining production. The results of an investigation to ascer-tain the reason for the locations of the wildcat wells are set forth in Table 5. Of the 591 wildcat wells, the 292 known to have been located by scientific methods were 21.6 per cent successful. The total footage of wildcat wells drilled in 1941 was 1,341,743 ft., of which a total of 216,995 ft. was drilled in successful wells. Exploration MEthods Subsurface geology and geophysics, largely the reflection seismograph, are still the principal methods used in exploration and development in the state. The number of seismograph parties operating throughout the year was as follows: seven parties on Jan. I, 1941; five on Apr. I; four On July I; eight on Oct. I; fifteen on Jan. 1: 1942.

Jan 1, 1942

By P. H. Dudley

A quarter of a century of service of steel rails on our oldest railroads, many of which have changed their standard sections three or four times, has furnished, and is furnishing, excellent opportunities to study their wear and behavior in the track. Such experience is valuable for the design of new sections, now required to meet the constantly increasing severity of railroad service. Before presenting the new sections for consideration, I will briefly call attention to some features of past experience. For convenience of study, rails may be separated according to their weight and height into four groups, viz.: 1. Hails weighing per yard from 52 to 60 pounds, and 34 to 4 inches high. 2. " " " " " 60 " 72 " " 46 to 44 " " 3. " " " " " 72 " 90 ' 41/8 to 5 4. " " " " " 85 or more " " over 5 " I Experience in this country is confined mainly to sections in groups Nos. 1, 2 and 3. • During the past few years I have had the opportunity to run my car over many thousands of miles of railway laid with the principal sections in use, and to obtain diagrams showing their deflections, permanent set, and, in a great measure, their manner of wear. The First Group.—The first steel rails imported, and those manufactured here, were light sections—included in the first group—and many of them, being rolled in rolls used for rolling iron sections, have pear-shaped heads, 2 3/8 to 2 1/2 inches wide, the base being heavy and from 1/4 to 1/2 inch narrower than the height. These rails were laid upon ties of solid timber, at least 8 inches face, spaced 2 feet from center to center. The moments of inertia of these rails were low, only ranging from 8 for the lightest sections to 12 for the heaviest. The deflections were, of course, great; but the quality of the metal was excellent. It was physically hard and

Jan 1, 1890

By E. A. Nesbitt

The important permanent-magnet alloys 15 years ago contained carbon and depended upon it for their permanent-magnet properties. In recent years great advances have been made in a number of new alloys substantially free of carbon. These include Remalloy,' an alloy of iron, cobalt, and molybdenum, the various iron-nickel-aluminum alloys of the Mishima2 type, and the more recent Alnico V3 in which the best properties are developed by heat-treating in a magnetic field. The Mishima and the Alnico types of alloys are very brittle and after casting must be ground to size. This article describes a permanent-magnet material4 that can be machined as cast, and when handled with some care can be rolled to thin sheet and drawn to fine wire. Optimum magnetic properties are developed by a simple heat-treatment, and at this time the ductility of the alloy disappears. If the cast alloy is heat-treated without cold-working the mag netic energy product is about 1.0 X 106. This material is called Vicalloy I (pronounced vicalloy, V for vanadium, I for iron, and C for cobalt). When the alloy is first hot-worked and then considerably reduced in area by cold-swaging, drawing or grooved rolling, it is found that after heat-treatment the magnetic energy product measured in the direction of previous extension can be increased to 2.0 to 3.5 X 106. These higher values have been obtained only after reductions in area of 75 to 95 per cent, and since the material hardens considerably during working, the reduction ordinarily can be accomplished only in fine wires, although larger sizes can be reduced by the use of powerful machinery. When the material has been cold-worked in such a manner as to improve its energy product substantially, it is called Vicalloy 11. Commercial use of Vicalloy has been made in the recording of speech. Tape 0.002 by 0.050 in. has been found superior in quality to all others tried, and is now used in the Western Electric Mirrorphone 5 In a variety of forms Vicalloy I or I1 is useful in many laboratory instruments, and in experiments in which the sizes and shapes required cannot be obtained with the other more brittle permanent-magnet materials. In 1936, during a study of other age-hardening magnetic systems, it occurred to the author that some of the iron-cobalt-vanadium alloys might be suitable for permanent magnets. The proportions of iron, cobalt, and vanadium were varied and a range of alloys of particular interest was found, as shown by the indicated area in Fig. I. The limits of this range of composition are 30 to 52 per cent iron, 36 to 62 per cent cobalt, and 4 to 16 per cent vanadium. The compositions indicated by points outside this area were also tested. Preparation and Properties OF Vicalloy I The alloys were usually cast in graphite molds into bars 3/4 in. in diameter and

Jan 1, 1946

By E. A. Nesbitt

The important permanent-magnet alloys 15 years ago contained carbon and depended upon it for their permanent-magnet properties. In recent years great advances have been made in a number of new alloys substantially free of carbon. These include Remalloy,' an alloy of iron, cobalt, and molybdenum, the various iron-nickel-aluminum alloys of the Mishima2 type, and the more recent Alnico V3 in which the best properties are developed by heat-treating in a magnetic field. The Mishima and the Alnico types of alloys are very brittle and after casting must be ground to size. This article describes a permanent-magnet material4 that can be machined as cast, and when handled with some care can be rolled to thin sheet and drawn to fine wire. Optimum magnetic properties are developed by a simple heat-treatment, and at this time the ductility of the alloy disappears. If the cast alloy is heat-treated without cold-working the mag netic energy product is about 1.0 X 106. This material is called Vicalloy I (pronounced vicalloy, V for vanadium, I for iron, and C for cobalt). When the alloy is first hot-worked and then considerably reduced in area by cold-swaging, drawing or grooved rolling, it is found that after heat-treatment the magnetic energy product measured in the direction of previous extension can be increased to 2.0 to 3.5 X 106. These higher values have been obtained only after reductions in area of 75 to 95 per cent, and since the material hardens considerably during working, the reduction ordinarily can be accomplished only in fine wires, although larger sizes can be reduced by the use of powerful machinery. When the material has been cold-worked in such a manner as to improve its energy product substantially, it is called Vicalloy 11. Commercial use of Vicalloy has been made in the recording of speech. Tape 0.002 by 0.050 in. has been found superior in quality to all others tried, and is now used in the Western Electric Mirrorphone 5 In a variety of forms Vicalloy I or I1 is useful in many laboratory instruments, and in experiments in which the sizes and shapes required cannot be obtained with the other more brittle permanent-magnet materials. In 1936, during a study of other age-hardening magnetic systems, it occurred to the author that some of the iron-cobalt-vanadium alloys might be suitable for permanent magnets. The proportions of iron, cobalt, and vanadium were varied and a range of alloys of particular interest was found, as shown by the indicated area in Fig. I. The limits of this range of composition are 30 to 52 per cent iron, 36 to 62 per cent cobalt, and 4 to 16 per cent vanadium. The compositions indicated by points outside this area were also tested. Preparation and Properties OF Vicalloy I The alloys were usually cast in graphite molds into bars 3/4 in. in diameter and

Jan 1, 1946

By B. S. Tani, R. V. Schablaske, M. G. Chasanov

MEASUREMENTS of the solubility of scandium in liquid cadmium from 349" to 606°C by Chasanov, Hunt, Johnson, and eder' led to the isolation and characterization of the intermetallic compound ScCQ. The solid phase found in equilibrium with a saturated solution of scandium in liquid cadmium above 422°C is ScCQ. The equilibrium solid phase below this temperature has not as yet been characterized. Hexagonal needles of ScCG were isolated from a 5 wt pct Sc alloy which had been ice-quenched from 500°C. Free cadmium was leached away from the intermetallic with saturated ammonium nitrate solution. The concentration of cadmium in successive leaches was followed polarographically and the leaching process was terminated when the rate of cadmium dissolution decreased markedly. Chemical analysis of the intermetallic thus isolated is as follows: 11.5 wt pct Sc and 88.3 wt pct Cd. The composition of ScCQ is 11.8 wt pct Sc and 88.2 wt pct Cd. X-ray diffraction powder photographs of ScCds taken in a 114.6-mm Debye-Scherrer camera with CuKa, radiation can be indexed on the basis of a hexagonal nit cell. Lattice coonstants are a. = 6.330 ± 0.001A to 6.324 i 0.001A and co = 4.853 i 0.001A. The a0 has a slight range with the lower value seemingly associated with the cadmium-rich terminus of the phase. With eight atoms in the unit cell the calculated intermetallic density is 7.54 g per cu cm; the density as determined by a liquid-displacement method is 7.7 g per cu cm. Powder-diffraction data for ScCQ are recorded in Table I. Stoichiometry, symmetry, unit-cell dimensions, and the number of atoms per unit cell indicate the MgsCd (D019) type structure for ScCQ; space group is D,&-P6,/mmc. Atomic coordinates are:

Jan 1, 1964

By F. H. Wilson, E. W. Palmer

G. L. Bailey (British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association, London, England)—I was glad to see this further work on the structure and properties of the Cu-Ni-Fe alloys of low nickel content in which we have been so interested in the United Kingdom since before the war." The authors' data on the variation in solubility of iron in both 5 and 10 pct Ni alloys with temperature is based on more detailed observations than we have made but is generally in line with our own work. The difficulty in these matters is in the identification of the structures obtained. The precipitation of the second phase which we presume to be the a' solid solution, richer in nickel and iron, from the a solution with which it is in equilibrium occurs in such a fine state of division that its resolution by ordinary micro-graphic methods is impossible in the early stages. We have published some electron micrographs which illustrate the effects observed more clearly but we agree with the authors when they say that dark staining characteristics when the alloys are subjected to sea-water corrosion are more sensitive in detecting the presence of the a' phase than is the microscope. After taking this point into consideration, however, I confess to some difficulty in understanding Fig. 4. I can only assume that the precipitates visible at such a low magnification as 150 diam in these relatively coarse forms are produced from iron-rich areas of the initial solid solution due to inadequate homogenization. If this is so I find it difficult to accept the authors' contention that such local variations in iron concentration as are capable of giving the heavy precipitates shown in Fig. 4 do not in fact materially affect the solvus surfaces of their equilibrium diagrams. I share the authors' enthusiasm about the resistance to corrosion of these alloys by seawater but I am not fully in agreement with them on the vexing question of the best iron content for these alloys. In Fig. 3 of ref. 8, we give many results showing that the resistance of these alloys to impingement attack in the Jet Test increases as the iron content rises to 2 pct. With higher iron contents pitting at shielded areas is likely to occur. Admittedly the addition of 0.75 pct Fe produces a large improvement in corrosion resistance compared with a pure 90/10 Cu-Ni alloy, but the further improvement on raising the iron to 2 pct is substantial. We recommend from 1.5 to 2 pct Fe as the desirable range from the point of view of corrosion resistance. While it is true that British practice generally uses a hard tube, the corrosion resistance of the 10 pct Ni alloys has in our work been little affected by the structural condition. Although the annealed alloys blacken in seawater, this effect seems to be superficial and not to be accompanied by any real decrease in

Jan 1, 1953

By Sir John Cadnan

The production from the Maidan-i-Naftun area for the year ending March, 1928, was 5,340,000 tons (40,210,200 bbl.), an increase of nearly 13 per cent. over the production for the year ending in March, 1927. The production by years since the opening of the field in 1912 is given in the following table: [1 ton = 7.53 bbl.] Year Ended MaRch Tons Year Ended March Tons 1912 (7 months)............. 43,084 1920....................... 1,354,631 1913........................ 80,800 1921....................... 1,767,070 1914........................ 273,635 1922....................... 2,310,098 1915........................ 375,977 1923....................... 2,913,908 1916........................ 449,394 1924....................... 3,583,000 1917........................ 644,074 1925....................... 4,221,000 1918........................ 897,402 1926....................... 4,470,000 1919....................... 1,081,919 1927....................... 4,735,000 1928....................... 5,340,000 The actual production represents only a small proportion of the potential production. The Masjid-i-Suleiman Field The present producing unit, the Masjid-I-Suleiman, is an anticline some 20 miles in length by 4 miles in width, including three domes as so far proved. The producing horizon is a very open, dolomitic limestone, which, while showing much variation in texture and porosity, is so connected that the lowering of pressure in one section of the field quickly affects the whole area. The topography of the field is broken, with differences of well elevations of as much as 1100 ft. The depths to the limestone vary from about 800 to about 5000 ft. The closed-in pressure of the oil wells varies from zero to 50 lb. per sq. in. and that of the gas wells is about 450 Ib. Although the static oil level may be several hundred feet below ground level, in oil wells of high elevation, all the wells flow continuously or intermittently after they are once started—the majority continuously. The gas is very high in hydrogen sulfide in gas-oil wells of low pressure.

Jan 1, 1929