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By Fredrick C. Kruger

Risk capital for mining ventures becomes harder to get each year as the costs for exploration, construction and money continue to skyrocket in today's inflationary economy. Because of this and because mining prospects must compete for the same dollar as many other needs of a diversified company, then the success or failure of any new proposal depends on how well its return on investment compares with all other capital requests. Mr. Kruger presents case histories showing what it costs to explore for new mines, how many of these prospects reward their promoters with success and how well some of the more famous mines have paid off.

Jan 9, 1969

By J. Szekely, P. Tarassoff, N. J. Themelis

In a copper converter air enters the bath in the form of turbulent jets. The interaction of these jets with the molten matte is fundamental to the converting process. In the present study, an equation is derived to describe the trajectory of a gas jet in a liquid. Calculated and experimental results for air jets injected into water are in good agreement. The trajectories of air jets in copper matte are predicted. THE air injected through the tuyeres of a Peirce-Smith copper converter emerges into the bath of molten matte in the form of a highly turbulent jet. The air jets affect a number of chemical and physical processes occurring in the converter: i) Converting Rate. It is generally recognized that the production capacity of a converter is limited by the flow of air which can be injected through the tuyeres and by the oxygen efficiency. In turn, the air flow is limited by pressure drop considerations or by the amount of splashing within the converter. ii) Oxygen Efficiency. This depends on the dispersion of the air jet in the liquid bath, and its trajectory through the bath. iii) Mixing. The jets act as mixing devices by transferring momentum energy to the bath; in this way the heat generated by the converting reactions occurring in the jets is distributed through the bath. iv) Refractory Wear. The proximity of the jets, which are centers of heat generation, to the refractories in the tuyere zone may have an important effect on refractory life. Mixing conditions in the bath will also influence refractory erosion. v) Splashing, and Accretion Build-Up. The energy of the jets is not dissipated entirely in mixing the bath. particles of liquid are carried out kith the gas above the surface of the bath in the form of liquid spouts and droplets. These result in the undesirable build-up of accretions on the converter mouth, and dust losses in the flue gas. Despite the importance of the interaction of the air jets and the matte in a converter, very few studies of the fluid dynamics of converting have been reported in the literature. Metallurgists in the USSR appear to have been more concerned with the subject than their Western counterparts. Deev et al.1 studied the interaction of an air jet with aqueous solutions in a converter model and qualitatively determined the tuyere air velocity and tuyere inclination which produced the most favorable results with respect to good mixing in the bath, and minimum splashing. Shalygin and Meyer-ovich2 also examined the air-matte physical interaction both in models and in industrial converters; they concluded that in conventional converting practice, there was no significant penetration of the air jets into the matte layer, and consequently the converting reactions occurred mainly in a zone adjacent to the tuyeres. The behavior of air jets in a converter bath, and the aerodynamic characteristics of tuyeres are discussed at length in a monograph on converting by Shalygin.3 However, the description of the phenomena occurring in the converter bath is largely qualitative. The side-blown Bessemer converter for steelmak-ing is very similar to the Peirce-Smith copper converter. Among the few investigations of the behavior of air jets in the bath of a Bessemer converter are those of Kootz and Gille4 who studied splashing in the course of an investigation on the effect of blowing conditions and converter shape on nitrogen pick-up in Bessemer steel. They found that during blowing standing waves were formed on the surface of the bath; the amplitude of the waves increased with the depth and angle of tuyere immersion until the whole bath moved backwards and forwards causing heavy splashing. Kazanstev5 used a model of a Bessemer converter to obtain correlations between the axial velocity of a gas jet and distance from the tuyere orifice and the Froude number of the jet. shalygin3 used these results to calculate the horizontal penetration of an air jet in a copper converter; the penetration was defined as the distance in which the axial jet velocity decreased to 10 pct of its initial value. However, the rising trajectory of the jet was not taken into account. In the absence of quantitative information on the fluid dynamics of converting, the design of copper converters has been based mainly on operating experience. Such experience tends to vary widely from smelter to smelter., This is reflected in Table I which is based on data compiled by Lathe and Hodnett.6 Aside from a rough, and perhaps obvious correlation between the total air flow and converter volume, Fig. 1, no pattern emerges from the data. For example, tuyere throat air velocities vary from 215 to 465 ft per sec in converters of the same size, for little apparent reason. The air jet energy input per cubic foot of converter volume, which may be taken as a measure of the amount of mixing in the converter bath, also varies greatly. A recent analysis of converter data by Milliken and Hofinger7 has also revealed unexplained variations in operating parameters. It is believed that by gaining a better understanding of the fluid dynamics of converting a more rational basis may be provided for the design of converters. In particular, it is proposed that if one takes into account the desirable criteria of a high converting rate, high oxygen efficiency and long refractory life, there should be an optimum configuration of tuyere air flow for a converter of a given diameter. The present investigation is concerned with the form and trajectory of an air jet in a converter bath. The general theory of turbulent jets has been expounded by Schlichting8 and Abramovich.9 However, most experi-

Jan 1, 1970

By Fred Porter

Pollution problems from smelters may be unique in industry since the pollutants cover the wide range of SOx, particulates, carcinogens (arsenic), plus a number of heavy metals, the health implications of which are not clearly understood. In addition to this wide range of pollutants, many of the plants are extremely old; and fugitive emissions may, in fact, be the most significant air pollution problem. The Environmental Protection Agency, both in an in-house and contract effort, has assessed the quantity of pollutants emitted and evaluated the health impact. This paper will review the status of EPA's regulatory efforts in both new and existing smelters in light of these pollutant assessment studies.

Jan 1, 1976

By J. T. Burwell

THE crystal orientation in silicon iron that has been given a particular treatment described by Goss,1 has been studied by Goss, by Bozorth2 and by Sixtus,3 but their results do not agree and are almost entirely qualita-tive. The following pages give a description of the orientation of the crystals in the material as determined by means of X-rays and expressed graphically in a pole figure. The treatment consists of hot-rolling the material into strip and then giving it two cycles of cold reduction followed by recrystallization. This produces remarkably good properties in the rolling direction, the product having a maximum permeability in this direction of more than 25,000 and a permeability at 16,000 Gauss of more than 2200, It is now generally agreed that Goss's original conclusion' that the crystals in the final product are randomly oriented was incorrect, since Bozorth2 and Sixtus,3 using different methods, have shown that there is a decided preference in orientation. Those writers, however, expressed their results only in terms of one or more ideal orientations with deviations therefrom.

Jan 1, 1940

By Clark L. Corey, Bogdan Lisowsky

Electrical resistivity, X-ray line positions, degree of order, and microstructures have been investigated for Ni-A1 alloys near the Ni3Al composition. The results indicate that Ni3Al undergoes disordering between 1250oC and the mp; also supersaturated y, produced in y + y' alloys by gas quenching, is extensively ordered prior to y' (Ni3Al) phase separation. The latter reaction, if not both, must follow the cooperative phenomena model. Shifts in line position as a function of quench-indulced super satulration are shown. Lattice pavarneters of equilibriunz and nonequilibrium phases are given. THE objective of this investigation was to determine the mechanism and kinetics of the reactions which occur in Ni3A1 and hypostoichiometric Ni3A1 alloys. The results are of particular significance relative to pre-precipitation phenomena. Early work on Ni-A1 binary compositions near the Ni3A1 composition (13.6 wt pct Al) has been adequately reviewed by Hanssen,1 whose phase diagram is presented in Fig. 1. williams2 verified the suggestion made by Taylor and Floyd3 and others4 that y', Ni3A1, may precipitate coherently on (100) planes of the y phase (see Fig. 1 for phase nomenclature); he further suggested a two-step precipitation mechanism consisting initially of probably short-range ordering followed by actual precipitation of y'. The precipitation stage in low-aluminum hypo-eutectic compositions has been studied by a number of investigators;*"7 short-range order or "zone" formation have been suggested as explanations for various diffuse X-ray scattering effects. The ordering reaction in Ni3A1 alloys is characterized by a) a very rapid rate of ordering in nonstoi-chiometric compositions, b) absence of a disordered phase region for the stoichiometric compound, y', or Ni3A1, c) precipitation phenomena as a dominant aspect in hypoeutectic alloys, and d) an increase in elec-trical resistivity on ordering.' The latter two factors were found by Newkirk to characterize ordering in Co-Pt, for which an extensive and detailed analysis was made.' An electrical-resistivity increase on ordering has also been reported for cuAu3.10 PROCEDURE Ni-A1 alloys in the form of 1300-g chill-cast ingots were prepared by vacuum melting electrolytic nickel and high-purity (99.99 pct) aluminum. Very small heats prepared from high-purity carbonyl nickel, supplied through the courtesy of Dr. Goff of the Naval Research Laboratory, were used for comparison with the larger ingots and no differences were noted. The cast material was homogenized in purified argon for a minimum of 72 hr at 1200°C and water-quenched from 1350°C. Compositions studied are given in Table I. The 10 pct A1 alloy was both hot- and cold-rolled. X-ray superlattice line intensities and peak positions were obtained from -270 mesh filings, using CuK, radiation with a LiF crystal monochromat adjusted to receive both 01 and a2. One-degree slits and a 1/8 deg per min scan rate were used to record line traces. A standard tungsten powder, obtained through the courtesy of G.E. Research Laboratory, was used to calibrate line positions.

Jan 1, 1968

By Nicholas J. Palethorpe

BACKGROUND Before addressing the above topic in any detail, it is pertinent to provide some background on Australia for those people who have not been there or who have a limited knowledge of our continent. Australia is approximately the size of the continental U.S.A. (excluding Alaska) covering an area of approximately 7 million square kilometres. It has a very dry climate which has led to a concentration of people in major cities scattered around the continents perimeter. Australia's population is currently approximately 15 million. Of the work force of 6.3 million, 72% work in tertiary industries, 20.2% in manufacture, 6.5% in agriculture and 1.3% in mining. Agriculture accounts for 46% of exports, mining for 31% and manufacturing for 23,. Economic activity is based on:- Agriculture This is capital intensive and covers extensive areas and is reliant on low cost farming. A.range of foods and fibres are produced with over 70% of production being exported. Such products are of course subject to the usual vagaries of world market demand and market access, particularly in regard to the operation of trade blocks such as the E.E.C. Mineral Resources A wide range of minerals and an abundance of iron ore, coal, gas and uranium resources provide an increasing volume of exports. However, Autralia's oil resources at present only supply approximately 70% of local requirements. Industry This is diverse and encompasses the processing of agricultural products and mineral ores as well as helping to supply the consumer and capital goods needs of the whole community. However, the small scale of local markets, the geographic isolation of Australia and relatively high wage costs have limited the scale of Australia's industry. Advanced technology has overcome some of these difficulties and high tariff and import quotas protect local producers from the full force of international competition. In 1980/81 Australia's Gross Domestic Product amounted to $130 billion with approximately 24% of this being devoted to investment. In the past decade Australia has experienced inflation rates ranging from 5% to 17% and only modest real growth rates ranging from 0.4% to 5% per annum. We have also experienced, as have many other industrialised nations, continuing wage and price increases. Unemployment presently stands at 6%. MINERAL DEVELOPMENT As the above figures indicate, Australia's continuing prosperity is very dependent on the mineral and agricultrual sectors of our economy. The dependence on these sectors is highlighted by the table below which indicates our position in a global context. [Australian Production of Minerals in a World Context Western World % Total Western World Position Mineral Production 1980 1st Rutile 75 Ilmenite 31 Zircon 70 Bauxite 36 Iron Ore 11 Tungsten 14 2nd Lead (Conc.) 15 3rd Manganese Ore 14 Brown Coal 11 (1979) Zinc (Conc.) 10 4thSilver (Conc.) 10 Nickel 6 5th Tin (Conc.) 5 6th Black Coal 5 Gold 2 Source: Mining Annual Review 1981] The total value of all mineral and fuel exports in 1980/81 is estimated at $5.9 billion. This prominence in the world mineral production has largely been achieved in the last 15 - 20 years. In fact, in the early 1960's, Australia had only 2 major mining export centres, Broken Hill in New South Wales and Mt. Isa in Queensland. This growth is highlighted by the fact that in 1963, for example, we exported only 9 tonnes of iron ore and less than 4 million tonnes of coal. In 1980/81 we exported 75m. tonnes ',of iron ore (valued at $1,117m.) and 47m. tonnes of coal valued at $1,965m.). The growth in our mineral industry has come about because of a number of factors. Abundance of Mineral Resources We are particularly well endowed with mineral resources, as indicated below.

Jan 1, 1982

By M. T. Halbouty

The Laredo oil district, South Texas, includes an area of approximately 200 miles long north and south and 75 miles wide, embracing the following counties: Starr, Zapata, Jim Hogg, Webb, Duval and McMullen. The area is relatively old in respect to the production of oil, as the first oil was discovered and produced in the Piedra Pintas field in Duval County on Sept. 10, 1905. Since that date, continuous new discoveries have contributed to the development of this district until, at the present time, it is one of the important oil-producing and gas-producing areas in the world. The year 1937 also had its share of new discoveries in the district, including not only new oil fields but also new sands in already producing pools and important extensions to existing sands and fields. Among the most important field discoveries, by counties, are: Duval County..... Benavides, Sweden, Thomas-Lockhart, Labbe and Lundell fields Jim Hogg County.. Las Animas field McMullen County. Ezzell field Starr County...... El Tanque field Webb County..... Killam and Oilton fields Of these, Benavides, Oilton, Killam and Ezzell have so far proved themselves most important; the Benavides field, Duval County, showing by far the most activity. For the year 1937, therc were 283 wildcat tests drilled in this district, of which 35 were oil producers, 20 completed as gas wells and 228 abandoned as dry holes. Duval County, as usual, received the greatest amount of wildcat drilling, having 21 oil wells, 5 gas wells and 63 dry holes completed during the year for a total of 89 tests. Next came Webb County with 4 oil wells, 4 gas wells and 53 dry holes for a total of 61 tests.The Laredo oil district, South Texas, includes an area of approximately 200 miles long north and south and 75 miles wide, embracing the following counties: Starr, Zapata, Jim Hogg, Webb, Duval and McMullen. The area is relatively old in respect to the production of oil, as the first oil was discovered and produced in the Piedra Pintas field in Duval County on Sept. 10, 1905. Since that date, continuous new discoveries have contributed to the development of this district until, at the present time, it is one of the important oil-producing and gas-producing areas in the world. The year 1937 also had its share of new discoveries in the district, including not only new oil fields but also new sands in already producing pools and important extensions to existing sands and fields. Among the most important field discoveries, by counties, are: Duval County..... Benavides, Sweden, Thomas-Lockhart, Labbe and Lundell fields Jim Hogg County.. Las Animas field McMullen County. Ezzell field Starr County...... El Tanque field Webb County..... Killam and Oilton fields Of these, Benavides, Oilton, Killam and Ezzell have so far proved themselves most important; the Benavides field, Duval County, showing by far the most activity. For the year 1937, therc were 283 wildcat tests drilled in this district, of which 35 were oil producers, 20 completed as gas wells and 228 abandoned as dry holes. Duval County, as usual, received the greatest amount of wildcat drilling, having 21 oil wells, 5 gas wells and 63 dry holes completed during the year for a total of 89 tests. Next came Webb County with 4 oil wells, 4 gas wells and 53 dry holes for a total of 61 tests.

Jan 1, 1938

By John L. Walter

A sintered compact of iron containing 0.007 vol fraction of glass , prepared 6). powder rnetullurgtcal lechniques, was rolled lo foil, 0.001 in. /hick. The foil sullrples were anneuled a1 650° to 850°C in hydrogen. Pri,narj recryslullization prodtnced large grains which Lc3ere highly elongnled in the rolling direclion und which had an unusual prgferred orientation. The glass parlicles assumed a stringerlike dispersiorz on working; llie slrinyers were parallel lo the rolling direction and to the long axis of the grains. The same unusual grain structure, preferred orientation, and stringerlike dispersion of purticles are found in heal-ily rolled and annealed foil of tungsten which has heen doped wilh small amounts of aluminum, silicon, and polassiutvt. Both the proper dispersion of the particles and severe working (reductions in excess of 98 pct) are necessary to produce the elongzcted grain structure. RECENTLY, the author reported on the origin of the elongated or "nonsag" grain structure in tungsten foil which was doped with aluminum, silicon, and potassium.' It was observed that particles, identified as mullite (Al6Si2Ol3), were present in the doped ingot (as sintered) and at all stages of processing from ingot to sheet or wire. It was shown that the particles, being plastic at tungsten working temperatures (up to 1550"C), underwent a "stringing out" parallel to the working di-direction. It was concluded that these strings of particles were responsible for the formation of the highly elongated interlocking grains observed in doped tungsten wire or sheet. To give further credence to this explanation of a long-observed but not understood phenomenon, it was decided to design a new system, one which was analogous to the doped-tungsten system. Thus, a bcc metal, iron, was chosen to be doped with glass which would be plastic at reasonable working temperatures for iron. The glass chosen was a #0080 Corning lime glass which melts at about 810°C. This is approximately the same fraction of the melting point of iron (0.6) as the melting temperature of mullite is of tungsten. It will be shown that all the observed unusual features of the doped tungsten are duplicated in the glass. doped iron, even to the preferred orientation of the grains in the recrystallized sheet. In the tungsten sheet the preferred orientation consists of two components, (1i3)(691) and (013)(362), neither of which has been observed as a component in textures of primary recrystallized bcc metals. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The glass, in the form of fine powder, was added to high-purity electrolytic iron powder and mixed dry. The particular composition chosen was 0.007 vol fraction of glass. After mixing, the powder was mechanically pressed to a disk 0.5 in. diam and 0.15 in. thick at a pressure of 5000 psi. The pellet was sintered, in pure dry hydrogen, for 2 hr at 8 50°C. The sintered pellet was then heated to 750°C and rolled to 50 pct reduction of thickness in two passes, with reheating between passes. The rolling temperature was then reduced to 600°C and the slab was rolled to a thickness of 0.050 in. Rolling to 0.010 in. was accomplished in several passes at 300°C. Final reductions to 0.003 and 0.001 in. were taken at room temperature. This rolling temperature schedule was similar, in terms of the fraction of the melting point, to that used in the rolling of the doped tungsten. The total reduction of thickness was in excess of 99 pct. Samples of the rolled foil were lightly electro-polished and annealed for 1 to 6 hr at temperatures of 650" to 85O°C in hydrogen. Samples for transmission electron microscopy were thinned on a Disa Electropol using AC-1 electrolyte.

Jan 1, 1968

By J. J. Frawley, W. J. Childs

Experiments were carried out to induce grain refinement during solidification by applying vibrational energy (freq 20 kc) to small specimens of bismuth, tin, and bismuth-tin alloys. The results show that if the intensity of the applied sound -field is not great enough to fragment the growing dendrites of a pure metal, no grain refinement is observed and the pain size of the dynamically nucleated specimens is the same as the grain size of a specimen statically supercooled the same amount. Bismuth specimens did not show any grain refinement; whereas, the tin specimens did show grain refinement. This phenomenon is the result of the difference in growth habit between the bismuth and tin dendrites. The bismuth-tin alloys showed grain refinement and, in addition, the segregation pattern was changed. THE solidification process is a change in phase requiring the nucleation of the solid phase from the liquid and the growth of this solid phase at the expense of the liquid phase. Since many physical properties and also the integrity of a casting are dependent on the solidification process, understanding and controlling this process are very important.' A good example in the controlling of a cast structure using heterogeneous nucleation theory is the reduction of grain size in aluminum castings by nucleation catalysis.2 This mechanism of nucleation catalysis has been explained by Turnbull.3 Another technique for grain refinement, which has received much attention but the mechanism has not been fully understood, is to vibrate the solidifying melt. Vibrations can be applied to the melt either by vibrating the mold directly or by introducing a vibrating rod into the melt.4-13 Three mechanisms have been proposed to explain this phenomenon: 1) The mechanical fragmentation of the original dendrites that grew into the melt. These crystals or fragmented dendrites act as new growth sites. 2) The nucleation of new grains in the liquid by the generation of very high pressure pulses caused by cavitation in the liquid. 3) The remelting of the dendrite arms during the solidification process. This mechanism is operative only in alloy systems and would be enhanced by stirring or mechanical vibration. The purpose of this investigation was to determine the mechanism that will increase the number of grains when mechanical energy is introduced into a solidifying melt. APPARATUS The unit used to generate the ultrasonic vibrations was manufactured by the Redford Co., and is similar to the one used in ultrasonic soldering. Fig. 1 is a sketch of the major components used for generating ultrasonic vibrations. The crystal transducer assembly consisted of four lead zirconate ti-tanate piezoelectric crystals in an aluminum holder. An acoustical horn, which was fabricated from stainless steel, was attached to the holder by a set screw. The resonant frequency of this unit was 20,000 cycles per sec. A Pyrex crucible, 4 in. in diam and 4 in. high, was contained in a hole in the top of the horn. The piezoelectric crystals changed volume when excited by an electric signal, thereby generating a sound signal which passed through the horn. The crucible was coupled to the horn by a liquid silicone oil. The purpose of the couplant was to transmit the soundwaves from the horn to the crucible. Without the couplant, much of the sound energy would be lost. The energy transmitted was sufficient at the resonant frequency used, so that acoustical cavitation always occurred in the molten metal. The presence of acoustical cavitation was detected by the characteristic hissing sound emitted from the liquid. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The influence of ultrasonic vibration on the grain refinement of bismuth, tin, and bismuth-tin alloys was studied. These metals were chosen because of their low melting temperature and the relative ease with which they can be thermally supercooled. The following procedure was used for obtaining large amounts of supercooling. Pure bismuth (99.999+), which was received in bar form, was mechanically broken into pieces small enough to be accommodated in a 50 ml beaker. About 200 to 300 g of bismuth and a few grams of SnCl2 as a flux were placed in the 50 ml beaker and melted by induction heating. The melt was held for 20 min at

Jan 1, 1970

By C. A. Doh, R. Q. Fields, M. Lebourg

A formation tester run on logging cable is now available to the oil industry. It offers a method of safely and rapidly testing possible producing formations in uncased holes. These tests can be made up the hole after running the electric log. Reservoir pressure data is continuously recorded at the surface as the fluid sample is extracted. The tester may be assembled with a reservoir of 1-, 2.75-, or 5.5-gal capacity. A retaining pad on the body of the tool is expanded against the wall of the hole at the exact depth desired; this depth is determined by electrical log control. Two bullets are then fired through the center of the retaining pad which create a connection between the formation and a flow line to the sample chamber. When the chamber is filled, a valve is closed and the fluid sample sealed at maximum pressure. The tool is retracted to minimum diameter and brought out of the hole. Electrical circuits permit a complete recording at the surface of the mechanical operations of the tool as well as the formation pressure build-up and the hydrostatic mud pressure. The tool was introduced commercially during the latter part of 1955 in the Gulf Coasts of Louisiana and Texas. Over 1,000 operations have been made to date (Sept. 1, 1956); 50 per cent of which resulted in successful tests. Failures have been due mostly to ineffective sealing in unconsolidated sands. One major company had 41 successful tests out of 80 attempts with 23 ineffective pad seals. Results for this company were very gratifying as to pinpointing gas-oil ratios, indicating productive permeabilities and aiding in determination of fluid content where electrical log and side-wall coring information were inconclusive. Eight typical pressure curves are discussed (including misruns). Six types of fluid recoveries are interpreted. Eight actual field examples of electric logs, showing the problems solved by the formation tester, are illustrated. The present applications of the tool are discussed: 1. Determination of productive fluid—varticularlv differentiating between gas and oil. 2. Determination of reservoir pressure as an aid to: (a) safety in completion technique, (b) reduction in drilling costs, and (c) reservoir analysis. 3. Determination of minimum gas-oil ratios. 4. Location of gas-oil or oil-water contacts. 5. Recovery of samples for examination and analysis: oil (gravity); gas (hydrocarbon content); water (salinity). Additional applications envisioned for the future are also given: (I) subsurface exploration based on accurate pressure, (2) recovery of fluid samples from the undisturbed reservoir for PVT work, and (3) possible quantitative study of permeabilities or productivity index. Running the formation tester requires no special pre-cautionary measures. Because full hydrostatic mud pressure is maintained at all times, well depth is no problem. Thus, the method allows safe, economical testing in wells which heretofore could only be tested by setting casing. INTRODUCTION A new method of safely and rapidly testing possible producing formations in uncased holes is achieving considerable success. The method offers promise of further advances in reservoir study. Called the formation tester, the new instrument is unique in that it operates on logging cable. It thus offers all the advantages of wire-line operations and becomes an important adjunct to present logging and side-wall coring services. The tester is operated against the wall of the hole at any depth desired. Zones to be tested are usually determined by a study of the electrical and the micro-caliper surveys. Reservoir data, as well as the operating cycle of the tool in the hole, are continuously recorded at the surface during the operation. The tester, as it was originally designed, was capable of recovering a 1-gal sample of reservoir fluid per trip in the hole. Tools with reservoirs of 2.75- and 5.5-gal capacity are now available. The 5.5-gal reservoir is equipped with a segregating system, set before going in the hole, so that the last portion of the recovery (usually 1 gal) is automatically separated from the first portion. This makes it possible

Jan 1, 1958

By Gerald G. Griswold, James O. Greenslade, Cherie Tilley, Richard Reseigh

INTRODUCTION The Harrison Western Corporation, a leading Denver based mine contracting and engineering concern, is presently engaged in sinking two 1,006 m (3,300 ft) shafts for the Phillips Uranium Corporation at their Nose Rock Project, approximately 13 miles northeast of the small community of Crownpoint in McKinley County, New Mexico. The Nose Rock Project is the first attempt by the Phillips Uranium Corporation to tap the deep uranium reserves in what has become known as the Grants Mineral Belt. (See Figure 1) Project Description Phillips Uranium Corporation's plan for the large 2700 metric ton per day (2950 tons/day) mining facility calls for a series of deep access and ventilation shafts ranging from 4.27 m (14 ft) to 5.49 m (18 ft) in diameter to approximate depths of 1,006 m (3,300 ft). The initial pair of shafts consists of one production shaft and one ventilation shaft separated by a distance of 91 m (300 ft). The interbedded layers of sedimentary sandstones and shales to be penetrated by the shafts contain several major water producing aquifers, the deepest being the mineralized zone called the Westwater Canyon Member of the Morrison Formation. A series of temporary and permanent water pumping stations is planned. Generally, the temporary stations are located above major aquifers to facilitate water removal while sinking through the aquifer and the permanent stations constitute what, in the final mode, will be the mine dewatering system. In addition, Phillips Uranium Corporation has In- stalled and is maintaining a system of depressurization wells that temporarily pump the major aquifers and considerably reduce the water inflows during shaft construction. The major aquifers are also chemically grouted prior to sinking. Site work for the project was initiated in the fall of 1976. Full scale shaft sinking commenced in November of 1977 on the 4.88 m (16 ft) diameter ventilation shaft and on the 5.49 m (18 ft) production shaft by another contractor. Harrison Western Corporation began work on the project on November 4, 1979 wlth the production shaft at a depth of 633 m (2,076 ft) and the ventilation shaft at a depth of 474 m (1,554 ft). This paper will address only the portion of shaft sinking completed by Harrison Western. Geology and Hydrology The Nose Rock Project is located on the Chaco Slope in the southern extreme of the San Juan Basin in northwest New Mexico. The southern San Juan Basin is generally bound by the Defiance Uplift to the west, the Zuni Uplift to the south and the Nacimiento Uplift to the east. The Grants Mineral Belt occupies most of the southern portion of the San Juan Basin and this project is located on the northern extreme of the Grants Mineral Belt. The San Juan Basin is comprised of sedimentary rock of continental, marginal-marine and marine origin, that dip northward from the Zuni Uplift and Chaco Slope into the interior of the San Juan Basin. (See Figure 2) Major Formations The major geologic formations to be penetrated range from mudstone and shales to siltstones and sandstones. The sandstones are highly productive aquifers which, under static conditions, would flow artesian. Water temperatures in the aquifers are high and therefore are a force to be dealt with. Temperatures range from 18ºC (65OF) in the upper aquifers to 48ºC (118º'F) in the lower. The mudstones are generally bentonitlc. (See Figure 2) GALLUP SANDSTONE: The Gallup Sandstone is the first major regressive wedge in the San Juan Basin of the Cretaceous era and at this project is about 35 m (115 ft) thick. It is medium grained and prior to depressurization carried a hydrostatic water pressure of over 72.5 kg per cm2 (1,031 psi) which 1s artesian. Compressive strength ranges from 334.7 kg per cm2 (4,760 psi) to 421.8 kg per cm2 (6,000 psi). Water temperature is approximately 30°C (86°F).

Jan 1, 1982

By H. M. Howe

PART I. INTRODUCTORY. § 24. INTRODUCTION.-This paper discusses the chief existing data as to the temperature, in iron-carbon alloys, of Ae.3, the upper limit of the transformation range when in equilibrium, as distinguished from Ac3, the temperature at which the end of the transformation is noted in heating up, and from Ar3, that at which its beginning is noted in cooling down. The former is in fact carried above Ae3 and the latter below Ae3 by lag. I touch incidentally on the influence of manganese on Ae3 (§ 29, p. 1102). The sections, tables, and illustrations, are numbered consecutively with those in the accompanying papers by Howe and Levy on Determination of, the Position of Ae3 in Carbon-Iron Alloys, and by Burgess, Crowe, and Rawdon on Thermal and Microscopical Examination of Professor Howe's Standard Commercial Steels, to which the present paper forms a sequel. § 25. The contradictoriness of our present evidence is shown by grouping it together in Fig. 14. For instance, both Goerens and Meyer (Series 2) and Meuthen (Series 12) used practically stationary temperature, and thus reduced the influence of lag very greatly; yet Ae3 for 0.32 carbon steel according to the former investigators is 894°, but according to Meuthen it is at or below 770°, a discrepancy of 124° or more. In view of our ability to measure these high temperatures within a few degrees, the existence of such a discrepancy is as unwelcome as it seems needless. I attack the thankless task of bringing some order out of this chaos.

Jan 6, 1913

By Edward Richardson

As DEVELOPED up to the end of the Great War, an airplane was essentially a mechanism of wood and fabric, joined and held together by metal fittings and, fastening. The engine and accessories, wire for wheel spokes and other tension members, and the occasional use of metal for interplane struts and the shafts of surface controls required some metal, but essentially it was a. wood and fabric structure. Attempts had been made to use metal for other purposes, such as struts in the drag-trussing of wing panels and for short interplane struts, and Junkers had produced an airplane of iron in 1915. By 1917 he was using steel tubes and duralu-min sheets, securing noteworthy advantages aerodynamically and from the standpoint of weigh PRINCIPLES OF AIRPLANE CONSTRUCTION The loaded weight of airplanes ranges from 500 lb. for the light plane of which we heard so much a short time ago, to about 40,000 lb. The great majority of planes range from 2000 to 10,000 lb. Of this weight from 15. to 30 per cent. is for the dividend-earning load. This percentage is so low that every per cent. saved on the rest of the weight increases the pay load from 3 to 6 per cent. The economic value of every pound that can be saved in designing or constructing a plane is sufficiently great to warrant spending money on refined methods of structural analysis, materials of superior strength properties for a given weight, methods of manufacture which may make possible the use of refinements in structural design, and the like, to an extent unknown heretofore.

Jan 1, 1928

By D. L. Luffel

This paper presents two main developments: (1) a short, constantly accelerated centrifuge method of measuring drainage capillary pressure properties of cores, and (2) a new analytic method of treatment of centrifuge measurements to obtain saturation-capillary pressure relations. Toward the first objective, a clever experimental method is presented which is certainly more rapid than previous centrifuge methods. Toward the second objective, a new analytic method is derived to eliminate the approximate method of Hassler and runner. The derivation of this new analytic method, however, appears to be in error. The new analytic solution is developed as Eq. 5 in Appendix A. At the beginning of this derivation, the average wetting phase saturation of a core is expressed as, where is the centrifuge angular velocity. Eq. D1.2 makes explicit the dependence of S and S upon The second equation shown in Appendix A expresses the relation between the three variables Since for a given porous medium the saturation is uniquely related to capillary pressure, the functional dependence of S upon P is trivial, i.e., Pc.ri does not actually appear. Thus, the function 5 (r, ) may be expressed as a new function, S*, of PC, , alone The author transforms the variable of integration in Eq. Dl through use of Eq. D2 and writes

Jan 1, 1965

FIRE tubes are commonly made in order to frighten horses or to harm enemy soldiers, but although fire issues from them, they do not cause much damage because they cannot be used at a distance. If you wish to use them, you are not able to approach close to the enemy, for if there is anyone who is afraid, he does not let you approach nor does he come near you until he sees that they have finished burning. Thus, in short, the assault with this is one that is seen beforehand, and for which there is always time to decide on some action in defense. It is indeed true that they are beautiful things to see and when the name tubes of fire is heard it terrifies those who do not have a defense ready. When four, six, or indeed ten or twelve of these are put in the hands of as many courageous and united men, they are surely good in forcing passage on a guarded bridge, or in entering or holding a gate, road, or other narrow place. They serve also for setting fire to dwellings or the enemy's supplies,

Jan 1, 1942

By F. A. Orth

COAL-mine opera- tors face a difficul- ty in notifying men when there is no work. If the miners come to the shaft when there is no work, they must be paid, by agreement, two hours' wages. This involves a considerable loss since it is not uncommon to em- ploy two or three hun- dred men or more at a single shaft. Many mines have solved the problem by using an electric siren. This carries the "no work" message to all of the miners within a ra- dius of from one and one- half to two miles, so they do not trudge uselessly to work and the operator saves the two-hours wage payment. At the Valley Smokeless Coal Co., Johns- town, Pa., such a siren serves as a start and quit- work signal for three mines which previously re¬ quired three individual signal systems. Similar units are used by the Old Ben Coal Corp. mines, Dolly's Smokeless Coal Co., Rhonda Coal Co., Bird Coal Co., and hundreds of others. Many other applications of the electric siren have been found in mines. They are used on underground locomotives, to awaken miners in the morning, to tell them it is time to come to work, to sound the start and quit-work signal, and to warn of fire or accident. The sirens are most generally used to give a start and quit-work signal, fire, and general emergency alarms as well as no-work signals. They require 3 and 5 hp. to operate. The smaller unit has a sound radius of from three-quarters to one mile, while the larger siren can be heard over a distance of from one and one-half to two miles. The 5-hp. unit has been heard for as great a distance as 14 miles, and 10 miles is not at all uncommon. One of the outstanding features of the 3 and 5-hp. units, which is uncommon in the smaller sirens is that they may be adapted to sound code signals. When used to sound a fire or general emergency alarm the siren may tell at the same time where the fire or acci-dent is. When a remote control device is used with a siren it is possible to operate the siren from any number of distant points. Any number of "start" buttons may be placed at various places. By using one "start and stop" button where the remote control is mounted, and one or more "start" buttons at various places about the plant, it is necessary to run only two wires to the various "start" buttons. If "start" and "stop" buttons are used altogether, then three wires must be run.

Jan 11, 1927

By J. G. Koenigsberger

The electrical specific resistance of rocks in the field is measured by sending a current through a medium of great volume, compared to the electrodes, whose resistivity should be measured. The whole resistance can be determined by the Wheatstone bridge and the specific resistance calculated by a well-known formula. The resistivity of some rocks in place in Germany and in Switzerland is given; first, of a rock near the surface, and especially near electrodes. Practical applications are made in the determination: (1) of the continuity of a conducting orebody; (2) of the surface ares of an orebody; (3) in the detection of a water-bearing fault in a salt mine. Preliminary 'observations are described: (1) on the influence of the depth of ground-water table; (2) on the detection of gas under high pressure in coal seams. The observations in this paper of the electrical resistivity of rocks and soil in place are along the lines of the very interesting method and results of the Messrs. Gish, Rooney, Hotchkiss and Fisher. 1,2 All the work described has been done since 1920. Method Used The very simple method consists in the application to the rock of two plane circular electrodes of iron or brass of a suitable diameter, with the aid of a contact substance, and in measuring the resistivity in a Wheatstone bridge with alternating current of 100 to 400 Hertz frequency per sec.). The general formula is known to be R= R0 +d/4(1/a+1/b-1.7/l+0.8(a+b)/l2) (1)

Jan 1, 1929

By Charles Catlett

Having had charge during the past year of the operations of the New River Coke Company, the second largest, if not the largest, coke-producer in this district, my attention was called particularly to the yield of coke from the coal as coked in a bank of beehive ovens, as the record showed that this yield, while believed to be well up with the practice of the district, was much lower than the analysis of the coal indicated it should be. The coal is well known to many members of the Institute, and the scope of this paper does not include a discussion of its occurrence and development. It suffices to say that the New River district comprises the mines working on the coals of No. XII. or the Conglomerate Series of the Rogers brothers, which are located on New river and its tributaries, and which find an outlet for their product east and west over the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway. The New river through this section carries the drainage from an extensive peneplain in which it has formed a very striking and stupendous canon, probably the most striking east of the Mississippi river. The only practical access to this territory is by means of this canon and the Chesapeake and Ohio road, and the opportunities for development by other lines may be considered as nil. If it were not for the fact that this road, farther west, reaches and develops entirely different coals, which are found in other measures, the New River district might properly be spoken of (as is now done at times) as the " C and 0. field." For fuller information on the geology of the region, those interested are referred to the ery complete monograph on the subject by Mendenhall and Campbell of the United States Geological Survey. The rocks are the same as those which carry the more widely

Jan 1, 1900

By Albert Hoskinson

PROGRESS on the earth depends to a large extent upon the rapid inter-change of ideas and commodities between the various nations of the world. The smooth flow of commerce, by which these ideas and com-modities move, is accelerated by accurate and complete maps of the various land and water areas of the earth, The production of accurate maps depends upon a complete knowledge of the figure and dimensions of the object to be charted, therefore a knowledge of the shape of the earth is a prime necessity for accurate charting purposes. Gravity observa-tions were first undertaken to aid in determining the shape of the earth so that the geodetic surveys of its land and water areas might be more accurately connected to form an undistorted map. A large part of the earth's surface is water and it is therefore necessary to get gravity values at sea as well as on land before a complete and accurate figure of the earth can be determined. Dr. F. A. Vening Meinesz, of Holland, was the first scientist to perfect a pendulum instrument that would accurately measure gravity at sea. He had previously developed a multiple pendulum apparatus for measur-ing gravity upon swampy and unstable land areas in Holland and it was therefore quite natural that he should adapt the instrument to give accurate results upon a still more unstable support, the surface of the sea. His instrument as perfected gives satisfactory results when mounted in gimbals on any vessel where the roll and pitch are not more than about 5° and where the vibrations from rotating machinery and wave action are not large enough to cause the pendulums to shift on the knife-edges. This degree of stability can be obtained on surface craft only in protected waters or on very calm days. Therefore, Dr. Meinesz mounted his instrument in a. submarine so that he could submerge below the disturbed surface waters and get the desired stability in nearly any kind of weather by simply diving to greater depths. Most of the gravity-at-sea work has been done with a Meinesz instrument and a very large number of the observations have been made by Dr. Meinesz himself. He has occupied nearly 1000 sea stations and probably has traveled as many miles by

Jan 1, 1938

By Parke A. Dickey, R. Fettke

Drilling activity during 1944 increased considerably in the oil fields and slightly in the shallow gas fields of western Pennsylvania. The number of deep tests (middle Devonian or deeper) completed during 1944 was the same as in 1943 and did not result in discoveries of additional reserves of natural gas or oil. Thus far no commercial oil production has been obtained from sands below the Upper Devonian in Pennsylvania. As a result of the lack of new discoveries, oil production in nearly all of the producing areas in the entire Pennsylvania grade region declined 10 to 11 per cent. Stocks of Pennsylvania Oil The Peilnsylvania grade crude-oil stocks in storage on January 1943 were 2,479,000 bbl. In January 1944 crude stocks totaled 1,846,000 bbl., and during 1944 the stocks of Pennsylvania grade crude declined to a year-ending balance of 1,617,000 bbl. Nearly all of this oil is "unavailable for use," representing pipe-line fill, tank bottoms and limited working inventories at the refineries. The storage of Pennsylvania oil has declined to a point where little or no available crude oil is currently in storage. Prices The posted price of Pennsylvania oil remained constant during 1944; however, on Rug. I, 1944, the wartime Government subsidy was instituted at a rate of 75¢ per barrel. The average price in the Bradford area, including the subsidy, was $3.31 per barrel. New Technical Developments The Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil Association started a rather ambitious program of research in production fundamentals and technology during 1944. Several well-qualified engineers have been employed and a laboratory is to be equipped at Bradford. The group will investigate, in cooperation with the American Petroleum Institute, the possibilities of bacteria as agents in oil recovery, and undertake other studies of both a fundamental and an applied nature. In cooperation with the Pennsylvania State College, the Research Group worked out a method of measuring water-intake rates in different strata. The method involves injecting salt water down a string of tubing and fresh water down the annulus, determining the location of the interface electrically, and measuring the input rates above and below the interface. The United States Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with oil companies of the Venango district, developed a simple gas-lift tubing string, which is operating successfully in some 20 wells. This device uses the air-gas mixture produced with the oil to lift it by the usual gas-lift principles. The Northern Ordnance Co. is experimenting with a chamber lift device that expels the oil in an unbroken column. These devices hold considerable promise

Jan 1, 1945