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By David A. Keys

Applied geophysics is the youngest child of that old branch of learning that has been known from Aristotle's time as physics—the constitution and laws of nature. The mother science, with the help of mathematics, has given birth to many children, who, on becoming of age in the scientific sense, wedded more practical applications which later became known as electrical engineering, physical chemistry and acoustical engineering. Some vigorous sons still retain the family name, among which the most recent to take its place as a division of science is geophysics, which deals with the physics of the earth. Geophysics in its broad sense has many departments—meteorology, oceanography and seismology, to mention only three. Within the past 20 years, however, a special interest has arisen in the application of physical principles to problems in geology, mining and civil engineering, with the consequent rapid growth of what has now been called "applied geophysics." Applied geophysics in this narrower sense is the application of experimental and theoretical physics to determine variations and discontinuities in underground structures that cannot be ascertained from surface inspection. It seems evident, then, that the physics department is the natural place in a university where the principles and methods involved should be taught and developed, for the physicist will also have had the requisite training in mathematics that the proper understanding of many methods now used will require. A knowledge of the procedure and principles, however, is not sufficient for the successful application of geophysical methods. One may know the dynamics of flight of golf balls and of impact and yet not play a par game of golf! The proper selection and use of the right club to suit the circumstances of the lay of the ball and an acquaintance with the possibilities and limitations of the strokes as well as the practical execution of the play is essential to a successful game. So, also, in the application of geophysical methods, it is important for the geophysicist to use the best device under the conditions presented, to know the limitations of the conclusions deduced from his physical measurements and to make the proper interpretation of the results. A knowledge of geology will be of great aid in coming to the correct con-

Jan 1, 1940

By David A. Keys

Applied geophysics is the youngest child of that old branch of learning that has been known from Aristotle's time as physics—the constitution and laws of nature. The mother science, with the help of mathematics, has given birth to many children, who, on becoming of age in the scientific sense, wedded more practical applications which later became known as electrical engineering, physical chemistry and acoustical engineering. Some vigorous sons still retain the family name, among which the most recent to take its place as a division of science is geophysics, which deals with the physics of the earth. Geophysics in its broad sense has many departments—meteorology, oceanography and seismology, to mention only three. Within the past 20 years, however, a special interest has arisen in the application of physical principles to problems in geology, mining and civil engineering, with the consequent rapid growth of what has now been called "applied geophysics." Applied geophysics in this narrower sense is the application of experimental and theoretical physics to determine variations and discontinuities in underground structures that cannot be ascertained from surface inspection. It seems evident, then, that the physics department is the natural place in a university where the principles and methods involved should be taught and developed, for the physicist will also have had the requisite training in mathematics that the proper understanding of many methods now used will require. A knowledge of the procedure and principles, however, is not sufficient for the successful application of geophysical methods. One may know the dynamics of flight of golf balls and of impact and yet not play a par game of golf! The proper selection and use of the right club to suit the circumstances of the lay of the ball and an acquaintance with the possibilities and limitations of the strokes as well as the practical execution of the play is essential to a successful game. So, also, in the application of geophysical methods, it is important for the geophysicist to use the best device under the conditions presented, to know the limitations of the conclusions deduced from his physical measurements and to make the proper interpretation of the results. A knowledge of geology will be of great aid in coming to the correct con-

Jan 1, 1940

By W. O. Milligan, J. L. McAtee

THE constitution and structure of the hydrous forms of aluminum oxides and hydroxides have been studied in the laboratory of the Depart¬ment of Chemistry at Rice Institute for almost three decades. Progress reports have been made from time to time 13,17,18 summarizing and evaluating the existing state of knowledge concerning the complex inorganic system A12Oa-H2O. X-ray and electron diffraction analysis, together with dehydra¬tion isobars and isotherms, have been the most useful methods for increasing the understanding of the structure and interrelationships of the various forms of alumina and aluminum hydroxides. The purpose of this paper is to bring up to date the information now available, in the hope that a clearer understanding of the structures of these materials may prove useful in aiding mineralogists and geologists in studies of the genetic significance of the aluminum hydroxide minerals, and possibly of the closely related clay minerals. Early investigators found the system alumina-water to be confusing, since, prior to X-ray diffraction examination, it was not possible to clearly identify and characterize the various crystalline forms. One could not be certain as to whether or not different investigators were working with the same chemical individuals. In later studies, including some from the authors' laboratory, addi¬tional confusion resulted from difficulty in preparing pure samples of the various aluminum hydroxides and in obtaining relatively large crystals of dimensions above the colloidal range of particle size. Even at present, it is difficult to establish sets of interplanar spacings for the several forms of the aluminum hydroxides, as illustrated by the 29 different X-ray diffraction pat¬terns listed in a current publication. The nomenclature of the aluminum hydroxides is also extremely confus¬ing, inasmuch as two different systems are employed by large groups of in¬vestigators. Plans are being made to formulate a uniform system of nomen¬clature but in this report the designations employed will agree with previous papers from the same source.13,17,18 Four forms of crystalline aluminum hydroxides may be considered to be well defined and recognized, which, together with hydrous alumina "amor¬phous to X-rays," comprise an exceedingly complex inorganic system. Several

Jan 1, 1952

By Nick Turner, E Walker, George C. Bowser

A fully field tested mine-wide data/communications system is presented which integrates total data acquisition, control, and instrumentation into a single system. Installations at Kitt #1 and Amonate Mines (W.Va.1 use an LSI-11 series computer which communicates with easily installed field data stations over a single twisted wire pair. Complete field test data are presented, identifying the problems and successes experienced in the development, installation, operation and maintenance of the system, and the training of mine personnel. Of particular interest is the system installed at Kitt #1 which has been in continuous use since February 1982. The paper will also deal with the application of a computer-based carbon monoxide monitoring system installed at the Amanate mine in September 1982. The purpose of that system is to monitor air quality and to provide early fire detection in the belt entry to permit the use of belt air for face ventilation.

Jan 1, 1983

By John Hillman

Reconstruction of the British mining industry began shortly after nationalization in 1947 and continued until well into the 1950s with the support of the government. This support diminished as plentiful supplies of cheap oil from the Middle East made many coal mines uneconomic. The planned rundown which followed was foreshadowed in the 1965 White Paper which outlined financial measures to speed the closure of uneconomic collieries. The decline appeared likely to continue into the 21st century as the role of coal in UK energy requirements became less and less significant. This policy was well on course in 1973 when the oil crisis led to a complete reappraisal of the position. A government examination in 1974 of the coal industry then supported the National Coal Board's general strategy of major capital investment as set out in its ' Plan for Coal ' .1

Jan 11, 1979

By Robert T. Walker

Robert T. Walker and Woodville J. Walker (Walker Engineering Corp., Salt Lake City)-Mr. Kinkel's article embodies, in condensed form, the results of the first detailed and complete geological survey that has ever been made of the long neglected but potentially very important West Shasta Copper-Zinc district, in Shasta County, California. In view of the difficulties of the terrain and the complexity of the geological structure, this represents a notable achievement, and it is with regret, therefore, that the writers find it necessary to differ from Mr. Kinkel's conclusions on two important points. The first has to do with the interpretation of two members of the stratigraphic column of formations in the district; for purposes of comparison, the description of these two members according to Mr. Kinkel is shown parallel to the description of these members according to the writers, see Fig. 14, Mr. Kinkel's nomenclature being used

Mar 1, 1956

By Bernard Rachlin

In the mineral industry measurement of density or specific gravity of slurries is often necessary or highly desirable. To date the most successful method of measuring the specific gravity of various media is to hand weigh a constant volume sample of the slurry. This method is time-consuming, however, and is intermittent rather than continuous. Most density measuring instruments in use today are variations of three basic systems: air bubble tube systems, radioactive methods, and displacer systems. The high cost of the radioactive cell, combined with the precision electronic measuring that is required, limits the practical utility of this procedure to a small percentage of critical processes. In the air bubble systems clogging of the bubble tubes with solids has rendered this type of measurement completely ineffectual for many applications. Continuous or intermittent purging of the bubble tubes with air or water to prevent tube clogging has been tried but has not been very successful, especially in the heavy media process.

Dec 1, 1956

The 118th, meeting of the Institute, which has been arranged primarily for the benefit of the Institute of Metals Division and of those members who are particularly interested in iron and steel, will be held in the Milwaukee Auditorium, Milwaukee, Wis., on Oct. 8 to 11, 1918. This date has been selected because at that time, and at the same place, the American Foundrymen's Association and the American Malleable Castings Association will hold meetings. A notable exhibit of metallurgical and mechanical processes and products, at which over 165 firms will be represented, has been arranged in Machinery Hall, of the Auditorium Building. Wherever practicable, the machinery will be in operation. The program of the Institute's sessions was published in Bulletin 141. A special announcement of the meeting, together with a program of the sessions of the American Foundrymen's Association, has been mailed to every member who was thought to be directly interested in the meeting. A report of the meeting-and of the discussion of papers will be printed in the December Bulletin.

Jan 10, 1918

The library of the above-named Societies is open from 9 A. M. to 10 P. M. except on holidays. It contains about 70,000 volumes and 90,000 pamphlets, including sets of technical periodicals and publications of scientific and technical societies. Members of the Institute, with few exceptions, are forced to spend a portion of their time in localities isolated from sources of information. To these the Library, through its Library Service Bureau, can render valuable service through correspondence; letters requesting information will receive especial attention. The Library is prepared to furnish references and photographic copies of articles on mining and metallurgical subjects; to determine the existence of mining maps, and to furnish general information on the geology and mineral resources of all countries. All communications should he made as definite as possible so that the information received may be what is desired and not include collateral matter which may not be of interest. The time spent in searching for such collateral matter will be saved, and the information will be sent more promptly and in more usable shape.

Jan 11, 1918

The Library of the above-named Societies is open from 9 A.M. to 10 P.M., except on holidays. It contains about 70,000 volumes and 90,000 pamphlets, including sets of technical periodicals and the publications of scientific and technical societies. Members of the Institute, with few exceptions, are forced to spend a portion of their time in localities isolated from sources of information. To these the Library, through its Library Service Bureau, can render valuable service through correspondence; letters requesting information will receive especial attention. The Library is prepared to furnish references and photographic copies of articles on milling and metallurgical subjects; to determine the existence of mining maps, arid to furnish general information on the geology and mineral resources of all countries. All communications should be made as definite as possible so that the information received may be what is desired and not include collateral matter which may not be of interest. The time spent in searching for such collateral matter will be saved, and the information will be sent more promptly and in more usable shape.

Jan 10, 1916

The Library of the above-named Societies is open from 9 A.M. to 10 P.M., except on holidays. It contains about 70,000 volumes and 90,000 pamphlets, including sets of technical periodicals and the publications of scientific and technical societies. Members of the Institute, with few exceptions, are forced to spend a portion of their time in localities isolated from sources of information. To these the Library, through its Library Service Bureau, can render valuable service through correspondence; letters requesting information will receive especial attention. The Library is prepared to furnish references and photographic copies of articles on mining and metallurgical subjects; to determine the existence of mining maps, and to furnish general information on the geology and mineral resources of all countries. All communications should be made as definite as possible so that the information received may be what is desired and not include collateral matter which may not be of interest. The time spent in searching for such collateral matter will be saved, and the information will be sent more promptly and in more usable shape.

Jan 12, 1916

The Library of the above-named Societies is open from 9 A.M. to 10 P.M., except on holidays. It contains about 70,000 volumes and 90,000 pamphlets, including sets of technical periodicals and publications of scientific and technical societies. Members of the Institute, with few exceptions, are forced to spend a portion of their time in localities isolated from sources of information. To these the Library, through its, Library Service Bureau, can render valuable service through correspondence; letters requesting information will receive especial attention. The Library is prepared to furnish references and photographic copies of articles on mining and metallurgical subjects; to determine the existence of mining maps, and to furnish general information on the geology and mineral resources of all countries. All communications should be made as definite as possible so that the information received may be what is desired and not include collateral matter which may not be of interest. The time spent in searching for such collateral matter will be saved, and the information will be sent more promptly anti in more usable shape.

Jan 1, 1918

By R. W. Raymond

In connection with the paper of Mr. Locke on Gilsonite or Uintahite (Trans., xvi., 162) read at the Salt Lake session of the Utah and Montana meeting, in July, 1887, the following data may be of interest and value. In December, 1887, I received from Mr. William Wagner, Seeretary of the Denver & Rio Grande Railway Co., a box of specimens of an asphaltic mineral from Utah. In the course of the correspondence which followed, I learned that the box had been forwarded by Mr. J. A. McMurtrie, of the firm of McMurtrie & Streeter, railroad contractors, Denver, Col. Mr. McMurtrie was, in 1883, chief engineer of the Denver $ Rio Grande Railway, and the mineral mas first brought to his attention in that year by Mr. Thomas H. Wigglesworth, who was then employed in making preliminary reconnaissances for wagon-roads to be used in constructing the Utah extension (now the Denver, Rio Grande $ Western) of the railway. Mr. Wigglesworth, I understand, was subsequently chief engineer of the Colorado & Utah Midland, and is now again employed by the Rio Grande. He writes substantially as follows concerning this mineral:

Jan 1, 1889

By W. A. Boyer, A. W. Beck

At the Morning mine of American Smelting & Refining Co. it was particularly important that there be a means of signaling the engineer from the moving cage in the shaft. Because of the shifting ground in which the shaft was located, buckling timber made it extremely difficult to keep a continuous bell line serviceable. In 1930 engineers considered a moving contact pantograph arrangement between the cage and two stationary messenger wires strung on insulators in the shaft compartment next to the cage. The idea was abandoned because falling material in the shaft and speed of hoisting made it difficult to maintain communication. Later in 1934 a manufacturing company was consulted about the use of an electric eye or a radio signal. As the shaft was located in a return air stream of nearly 100 pct relative humidity, there was too much fog for the electric eye to be used. The radio signal was considered, and it was believed feasible to generate electric static on the cage, locating a radio receiver at the top of the shaft, but the manufacturing company's research department was too busy to work on it at that time.

Sep 1, 1955

By R. H. King

The Automatic Extraction System (AES) was designed and built under a US Department of Energy Contract by the National Mine Service Co. in cooperation with the Lee Engineering Division of Consolidation Coal Co. The Pennsylvania State University, Mining Engineering Section, was contracted as an independent auditor of the AES performance. The AES had a rotating cutter drum like a continuous mining machine. But two hydraulically powered roof supports, four roof-bolting drills, a dust scrubber, a ventilation fan and ducting in the roof supports, semi-automatic control, an extensible chain conveyor, and other innovations led to the distinction "extraction system" as opposed to "miner-bolter" or continuous mining" machine. After design and assembly, the AES was field tested experimentally in an underground coal mine. The in-mine performance audit was preceded by a computer simulation of the potential production for a later comparison with the actual tonnage mined by the AES. This paper describes the results of an in-mine trial and assesses the production potential of the AES.

Jan 1, 1983

The mining of coal, phosphate, oil, gas, and sodium on the public lands of the United States has, during a long period of years, been prevented by the failure of Congress to legislate, notwithstanding the fact that each successive Congress has vainly attempted to enact a law. Disagreements among members of Congress, many of which have related to non-essential matters, have prevented the passage of a bill, the failure at the last session having been due to a fillibuster in the Senate against the conference report led by Senator LaFollette of Wisconsin. Seven bills covering this subject have been introduced into the present Congress, four of which are identical in nearly all essential respects and follow either precisely or closely the conference agreement of the last Congress. These bills are too long to permit of review in this column. In general they provide for the leasing of lands or privileges to mine or to recover the various minerals above mentioned under terms and conditions as to the amount of land that may be leased by any one applicant, the diligence with which the work must be prosecuted, the return or royalty demanded, and the term of the lease and extensions thereof.

Jan 8, 1919

By A. W. Brune

Conventional methods of calculating the duty cycle of a mine hoist are awkward in that a number of items must be remembered or that they must be collected together in order to have all the calculated data in one place. A more convenient way is to tabulate all factors involved, permitting a ready evaluation of the problem. An example illustrates the convenience of such a table for either of two types of drums, cylindrical and conical. Assume the following conditions: The hoisting depth is 600 ft. Balanced hoisting is used. The weights of empty skip and ore are 6000 lbs and 12,000 lbs, respectively. Production is 3600 tons per shift. Net hoisting time per shift is six hours with a rest period of eight sec, top and bottom, per trip. Acceleration and retardation are each six sec. The diameter of the drum is seven ft; its face is four ft. The sheave has the same diameter. The equivalent effective weight of the drum reduced to rope center is 15,400 lbs. The weight of each sheave is 2100 lbs. 1 The rope is 1 1/4-in. improved plow steel weighing 2.50 lb per ft.

Jan 9, 1961

By Ray W. Ballmer, K. H. Matheson

Since start-up in 1906, Bingham had been a rail pit, beginning with steam locomotives and converting to electric locomotives in 1923. Ore production was maintained by effective utilization of avail- able rail equipment. From time to time, as it became necessary to deepen the pit and as stripping ratios increased, studies of alternative material haulage systems such as diesel locomotives, conveyor belts and trucks were made. Conversion from rail haulage with electric locomotives could not, however, be justified. Because of a gradual decline in ore grade, a program was approved in 1963 to raise ore production to 108,000 tpd. The decision posed a serious problem: due to built-in inflexibility and other limitations, a parallel expansion of the rail haulage system was impractical. (Track and trolley wire relocation causes greater shovel downtime than required for normal maintenance; instability of the dumps and the resulting additional track maintenance increases greatly as the daily volume of waste material increases.) Studies indicated that economically the most favorable course of action would be the replacement of rail haulage on the upper levels of the mine by truck haulage.

Jan 11, 1965

The fundamentals of blasting involve both the properties of explosives and of the rock being blasted. Four of the most important explosive properties appear to be energy density, bulk density, rate of energy release and the pressure- time history of the gases produced. Important rock properties are density and porosity, strength, and energy absorption including the effective moduli of elasticity. Rock structure also has a marked effect on its properties: for example, joints, bedding, and fracture alteration. Several mechanisms enter into rock fragmentation by blasting. These include slabbing, radial fracturing, crushing and bursting by the gas bubble. All of these factors are closely related to properties of both explosives and rock. Slabbing depends upon the first generated stress wave, whose shape and magnitude are a result of the pressure generated by the explosive, its time history and the resultant response of the rock, including its ability to sustain the stress wave. Actual slabbing, in turn, is a function of the magnitude and shape of the pressure pulse and the tensile strength of rock. Further fragmentation depends to a great extent upon the amount of gas in the bubble and its energy and pressure.

Jan 10, 1967

Some years ago it was my good fortune to inspect some coal properties in Germany, and the most striking impression I received on my trip was that in that country every one in the coal industry, miners and operators, was proud of the fact-not apologetic about it-and that industrially coal was looked upon as a King. The explanation, of course, was that at least 90 per cent of the entire mineral value produced in Germany was from coal, and that it was the very foundation of the nation's industrial life. The feeling was so different from that existing in the United States among those engaged in producing coal that it made a profound impression on me, and many times since then I have speculated about the reasons for the difference in opinion in the two countries. Here, of course, our units are much smaller and more numerous, there is not so large a proportion of technically trained men, and we have the American trait of depreciating the things we do at home; but among those not actively

Jan 1, 1939