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By Stephen Taber

JOHN C. BRANNER, Stanford University, Cal. (communication to the Secretary *).-Wideawake teachers of geology are constantly on the lookout for good illustrations of veins, especially where the processes of formation are either clearly shown or suggested. And I long ago found out that one who would learn nature's laws must despise nothing. It thus happened that in 1910, Dr. George J. Peirce of the depart-ment of botany at Stanford University called to my attention a cracked and broken yellow earthenware dish, 8 ½ in. across the top and 2 ½ in. deep, that, to the ordinary observer, seemed to be of no further use, and quite ready for the waste can. The striking thing about this dish was that the thin glaze over much of the outside surface and over the upper margin of the inside surface had been lifted in small scales, varying in. diameter from ½ cm. to 1 cm., and thrust outward and held there by some sort of white fibrous mineral. The process looked very much like one we are familiar with in the Southern States where. we often see in the winter pebbles and soil thrust out from a clay bank or lifted from a clay soil and held there supported by what is popularly known as needle-ice. Upon inquiry I learned the following facts in regard to the history of this particular dish: In the summer of 1910, it had been partly filled with a concentrated salt solution taken from one of the salterns of the Stauffer Chemical Co. at Redwood City, Cal. A qualitative analysis of the original brine showed: Present: iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates (trace), bromides, carbonates, borates (trace), and considerable amounts of organic matter. Absent: calcium, lithium and iodides.

Jan 3, 1917

By John A. Mathews

It is no longer necessary to explain to an audience like this that there are stainless or non-corrosive steels. It is still necessary to repeat, and to keep on repeating, that no one of them is stainless or non-corrosive under any and all conditions. We do not make railroad axles, springs and rails from the same kinds of steel; nor are shafts, steering-arms, gears and cap-screws made from the same type analysis. By analogy with other fields of endeavor, therefore, it is logical to expect that all the myriad conditions of corrosion due to inorganic and organic acids and salts and their mixtures in all degrees of concentration and at a wide variety of temperatures and pressures will require different materials to withstand them. Possibly stainless steel when first introduced a decade ago was expected to do too much, or suffered from overenthusiasm and lack of positive knowledge and experience on the part of its producers. Its name may have been a bit misleading too, for remarkable as this product is, it has its limitations. There are now so many different ferrous products available and calling for recognition, that we may be justified in an attempt at classification. The first division is very simple. 1. Non-corrosive steels that harden by quenching. 2. Non-corrosive steels which do not harden by quenching. We might make the classification still simpler by saying (1) those that harden by quenching, and (2) those that soften by quenching. Of course there is a border line or fringe of compositions which may possess some of both qualities under limited conditions of treatment. I have seen a steel so perfectly balanced on this border line that in its natural condition, as rolled, the outside of a 1-in. bar was soft and the inside hard, and there was quite a sharp line of demarcation in between. The hardness at the center was more than twice as great as at the surface, as measured by the Rockwell test. This border line of products does not include, however, the commercial products now available to solve the problems of industry. Let us examine the products of these two classes: Hardenable Non-cokkosive Steels This group, practically speaking, includes only the products known as "stainless iron and stainless steel." These names have a special sig-

Jan 1, 1927

R. H. SWEETSER, Columbus, Ohio.-My experience with oxygen in the blast is limited to the use of one tank of oxygen in melting out a chilled anthracite furnace. The oxygen was introduced through the peephole of the tuyeres and opened them in a very short time. We could see that an intense heat was generated just as soon as the oxygen struck the fuel. I agree with the committee in respect to many. of the things that will probably happen in the iron blast furnace, particularly as to the speeding up of the operation. There will undoubtedly be changes in the shape of the blast furnace, and if I were designing one today I should hesitate about the form to give it. Mr. Kirby suggested that the proper shape might be rectangular. Some of the men of the American Rolling Mill Co. have reached the same conclusion, as a result of Royster and Joseph finding that the combustion zone in the front of the tuyeres extended into the furnace less than 40 in. If this is correct, we might build the furnace with an elongated rectangu-ular hearth having the shorter dimension a little over 80 in. and secure. a very intense temperature in the hearth. The committee's report said, "With more oxygen available in the blast, the smelting ability of the furnace will be increased beyond the' speed of the preparing zone in the shaft." This can be controlled by providing ample facilities for getting stock into the furnace, and this will be one of the biggest changes in blast-furnace construction. The question has been raised as to finding suitable refractories to withstand the increase of hearth temperature. If the furnace can be kept full, the descending column of cold material will probably take care of the increased heat from more rapid combustion of the coke. At the Cleveland meeting, in 1912, the iron blast-furnace men listened with great interest to a paper on copper slags; from Mr. Kirby's paper, it looks as though they might again have to go to the copper men, for many of the problems of the iron blast furnace of the. future that uses oxygen may be worked out on lines of the copper blast furnace.

Jan 11, 1924

By Albert J Hoskinson

Progress on the earth depends to a large extent upon the rapid interchange of ideas and commodities between the various nations of the world. The smooth flow of commerce, by which these ideas and commodities move, is accelerated by accurate and complete maps of the various land and water areas of the earth. The production of accurate maps depends upon a complete knowledge of the figure and dimensions of the object to be charted, therefore a knowledge of the shape of the earth is a prime necessity for accurate charting purposes. Gravity observations were first undertaken to aid in determining the shape of the earth so that the geodetic surveys of its land and water areas might be more accurately connected to form an undistorted map. A large part of the earth's surface is water and it is therefore necessary to get gravity values at sea as well as on land before a complete and accurate figure of the earth can be determined. Dr. F. A. Vening Meinesz, of Holland, was the first scientist to perfect a pendulum instrument that would accurately measure gravity at sea. He had previously developed a multiple pendulum apparatus for measuring gravity upon swampy and unstable land areas in Holland and it was therefore quite natural that he should adapt the instrument to give accurate results upon a still more unstable support, the surface of the sea. His instrument as perfected gives satisfactory results when mounted in gimbals on any vessel where the roll and pitch are not more than about 5" and where the vibrations from rotating machinery and wave action are not large enough to cause the pendulums to shift on the knife-edges. This degree of stability can be obtained on surface craft only in protected waters or on very calm days. Therefore, Dr. Meinesz mounted his instrument in a submarine so that he could submerge below the disturbed surface waters and get the desired stability in nearly any kind of weather by simply diving to greater depths. Most of the gravity-at-sea work has been done with a Meinesz instrument and a very large number of the observations have been made by Dr. Meinesz himself. He has occupied nearly 1000 sea, stations and probably has traveled as many miles by

Jan 1, 1940

Discussion of the paper of E. C. HARDER, presented at the Pittsburgh meeting, October, 1914, and printed in Bulletin No. 94, October, 1914, pp. 2573 to 2586. I. C. WHITE, Morgantown, W. Va.-I have seen some of the great iron-ore deposits described in this paper. -One of these in the State of Minas Geraes appears to be an immense mountain of iron ore about 2,000 ft. in height. All over its surface from bottom to top may be seen large masses of rich iron ore, varying in weight from a few pounds to several tons, and from all that one can judge without exploitation, the quantity of available ore is certainly very large in this particular mountain. Whether it will prove a mere surface deposit or shell, like the famous Iron Mountain of Missouri, is for future exploration to determine. The question of transportation is the main factor in determining the availability for exportation of these Brazilian iron ores. There is no coal in Brazil that can be manufactured into coke without expensive previous treatment, since the best of the raw coal in the States of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, and Parana, contains about 35 per cent. of ash, of which about 6 per cent. is sulphur, and coal of this composition cannot be utilized in iron smelting without purification. When I was chief of the Brazilian Coal Commission in 1904 to 1906, I had a cargo of this coal shipped to Balk, Germany, and treated in the great coal-testing plant of the Humboldt Engineering Works, located just across the Rhine from Cologne. It was found that by crushing and washing the Brazilian coal, it yielded 33 per cent. of briquetting coal, containing only 10 to 12 per cent. of ash (of which 1 per cent. was sulphur), and 42 per cent. of slack coal, with 25 per cent. of ash and low in sulphur, so that about 33 per cent. of the Brazilian coal could be converted into coke of fair quality, as shown by the following average of three analyses, using air-dried coal, of briquets made from the Barro Branco coal bed, State of Santa Catharina: Moisture 1.56 Volatile matter 31.66 Fixed carbon 56.73 Ash : 10.05 Total 100.00 Sulphur 1.34 Phosphorus 0.003 B.t.u 13,395

Jan 4, 1915

By Albert J. Hoskinson

Progress on the earth depends to a large extent upon the rapid interchange of ideas and commodities between the various nations of the world. The smooth flow of commerce, by which these ideas and commodities move, is accelerated by accurate and complete maps of the various land and water areas of the earth. The production of accurate maps depends upon a complete knowledge of the figure and dimensions of the object to be charted, therefore a knowledge of the shape of the earth is a prime necessity for accurate charting purposes. Gravity observations were first undertaken to aid in determining the shape of the earth so that the geodetic surveys of its land and water areas might be more accurately connected to form an undistorted map. A large part of the earth's surface is water and it is therefore necessary to get gravity values at sea as well as on land before a complete and accurate figure of the earth can be determined. Dr. F. A. Vening Meinesz, of Holland, was the first scientist to perfect a pendulum instrument that would accurately measure gravity at sea. He had previously developed a multiple pendulum apparatus for measuring gravity upon swampy and unstable land areas in Holland and it was therefore quite natural that he should adapt the instrument to give accurate results upon a still more unstable support, the surface of the sea. His instrument as perfected gives satisfactory results when mounted in gimbals on any vessel where the roll and pitch are not more than about 5" and where the vibrations from rotating machinery and wave action are not large enough to cause the pendulums to shift on the knife-edges. This degree of stability can be obtained on surface craft only in protected waters or on very calm days. Therefore, Dr. Meinesz mounted his instrument in a submarine so that he could submerge below the disturbed surface waters and get the desired stability in nearly any kind of weather by simply diving to greater depths. Most of the gravity-at-sea work has been done with a Meinesz instrument and a very large number of the observations have been made by Dr. Meinesz himself. He has occupied nearly 1000 sea, stations and probably has traveled as many miles by

Jan 1, 1940

Discussion of the paper of DR. L. EDELEANU, presented at the Pittsburgh meeting, October, 1914, and printed in Bulletin No. 93, September, 1914, pp. 2313 to 2332. F. W. BUSHONG,* Pittsburgh, Pa.-This process of extraction is particularly advantageous in the case of Roumanian oil, on account of its high aromatic content. I have prepared a paper, which will appear probably next month in the Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, describing a series of two-degree fractions of oil from the Nowata field in Oklahoma. I have made extractions with liquid sulphur dioxide in accordance with Dr. Edeleanu's method, and found that the Oklahoma oils, for instance the kerosene fractions, are purified in this way, although the quantity taken out does not at all compare with that taken out of the Roumanian oil. I have made careful analyses of separate fractions, before and after extraction, and they show a very distinct fractional separation-. I like the distinction, brought out by Dr. Day in previous discussions, in regard to oils, rather than oil, and his beautiful illustration of fractionation. Just as fuller's earth, and other clays, will enable us to obtain lower-boiling fractional portions of the oils, and eventually retain a residuum which is hard to get rid of, or to remove, so there is an advantage to be gained by the use of a reagent which begins at the other end by taking out these last constituents first, namely, ozone. I have also analyzed the ozonides and they are derivatives of hydrocarbons very much poorer. in hydrogen than we have heretofore supposed. Similar results have been obtained with Roumanian, Russian, and Italian petroleums. Furthermore, I have prepared ozonides from a fraction of Oklahoma oils, both before and after ex-' traction with liquid sulphur dioxide, and found that the ozonide obtained from the extract is the same as that precipitated out of the original oils. In other words, the residual substance, which the fuller's earth retains, is the one first thrown down by the use of ozone, but it may also be extracted by liquid sulphur dioxide- and be thus separated in apparently unaltered condition. The analysis of this extract corresponds to the formula C15H20, which is surprising, since it is lower in hydrogen content than we have been in the habit of considering among the constituents of our oils. The extract was probably contaminated with other hydro-carbons, but I think it is unquestionable that we must look for hydro-carbons in petroleum which correspond to a formula at least -as low in hydrogen as C15H2o, and possibly even as low as C15H16.

Jan 4, 1915

Jan 1, 1951

Jan 1, 1939

Jan 1, 1910

By M. C. Fuerstenau, A. M. Gaudin

Understanding the sedimentation of relatively thick suspensions depends on a knowledge of the concentration of the solids at various positions in the pulp and the times required for thickening. Flocculated kaolin slurries were studied with the transviewer, a device utilizing X-ray absorption in conjunction with a scanning mechanism. A mathematical model based on the Schuhmann size distribution in conjunction with Poiseuille's law yields experimental filtration rates as a hction of pulp density. These calculations show accord with the experimental results. Accurate predictions of sedimentation results depend upon determining the number and size of pores for given conditions, since the voidage of the suspension controls the volume of liquor that can pass through an element of suspension per unit time. A study on the sedimentation of flocculated kaolin slurries has indicated that their sedimentation takes place by two different processes, dependent on the initial concentration of solids in suspension. One process occurs in dilute suspensions (less than about 2 pct solids by volume) in which a multitude of relatively small flocs settle by hindered settling. In this case, maximal settling velocity is independent of container geometry.1 r2 The other process occurs in relatively concentrated suspensions (greater than about 2 pct solids by volume) in which the mass is considered to be settling as an aggregate network or as one large floc, defined as to size by the dimensions of the container. In this case, container geometry affects sedimentation results significantly. Furthermore, it seems that this single floc is in a state of compression from the beginning of settling, and that two phases of compression settling exist during sedimentation. The first occurs during the early stage of settling where liquid exudes easily and rapidly from the floc, while the second occurs in the compacting portion of the floc where water escapes more slowly and with much more difficulty. Sedimentation of relatively thick suspensions may then be thought to be a filtration phenomenon in which a pulp thickens by the filtration of its contained liquor through the aggregate network of pulp above it. This postulate has also been advanced by others.,4 To understand the sedimentation of relatively thick suspensions more fully, it was felt that knowledge of the concentration of solids at all positions in the

Jan 1, 1962

Jan 1, 1924

Jan 1, 1939

Jan 1, 1939

By John R. Lotz

A team of American experts is tackling a whole nations's problems, under the banner of a seven-year plan evolved by the Iranians themselves.

Jan 7, 1950

By Guy R. Johnson

It is now generally acknowledged that the successful management of a modern foundry necessarily embraces a knowledge of chemistry, and especially a thorough acquaintance with the effect of the various metalloids on cast-iron, in order to

Jan 1, 1897

By J. S. Ll. Leach, J. B. Cohen, M. B. Bever

IN the work reported here, the heats of formation of a copper-rich Cu-Sn (a) solid solution and of the Cu.Sn (0 phase were measured by tin solution calorimetry. An approximate determination of the heat effect attending the precipitation of 6 from a supersaturated a solid solution was also made.

Jan 1, 1955

By S. H. Ash

Foreman remains key man in any safety program, as men attracted to the industry must be trained in safety thinking. Diesel engines underground aid safety and widespread use of roof bolting is reflected in reduction of roof-fall fatalities.

Jan 2, 1953

Jan 1, 1945

By Oscar T. Marzke

Four alloys that precipitate the alpha phase from the beta of the copper-zinc system were heat-treated in various ways to develop as many forms of the segregate as possible. It was found that the precipitate may have the form either of plates or of needles. Plates usually result when precipitation occurs at low temperatures and needles when precipitation takes place at high temperatures. The needles tend to align themselves along certain planes in the matrix and to coalesce into plnte-like structures. The two phases were found to be related so that a (111) plane and [Oil] direction of the precipitate are parallel to a 10111 plane and 11111 direction of the matrix. DISCUSSION (E. A. Anderson presiding) D. W. Smith, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Written discussion).—Tllis report by Dr. Marzke covers completely all possible heat treatinents over a considerable range of compositiol~s in which a1pha precipitates from beta brass, and may be said to complete the Inctallographic part of this problern The lining up of ncedles of segregate to form plates, espeeially as shown in Fig. 5, appears to he regular, although the author's frequency plot in Fig. 11 makes it appear rather irregular. Has the author attempted anY correlation between some of the major dircetions and the oricntntaion of the parent grain as determined by X-ray analysis? Also, in Figs. 4, 5 and 6 the cross-sections of the needles appear to be straightsided and regular. Have these directions been correlated with the matrix latttice? Dr. Mnrzkr 's method of interpretation of the orientation rclationships between the alpha. and beta phases is a bit uncertain and seems to wed more explanation. If this relationship, as staited is such that :L (1111 plane and a [I 10] direction of that plane in the precipitate is parallel to a. {110} p1ane and a [111] direction of that, plane in the matrix, there mill be a maximum of 24 possible orientations of the alpha phase within a. single grain of the beta phasc. This relationship is expressed strercographical1y in Fig. 13, ill which the locations of a11 of the alpha {111} poles for the 24 orientations of alpha me given. Fig. 12 chccks fairly closely with this thcoretical plot,. with a few exeeptions which may be due to the inaceuracy inherent in the method used by the anthor in determining the orientations of the segregates. The method might have been refined somewhat had corrections been made for the displacement of the slip p1ancs upon deformation.

Jan 1, 1933