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By Willis R. Battles, William F. Cerini, P. H. Jones

A test for determining the plugging characteristics of an oil-well injection water has been developed. It consists in measuring changes of the filter rate of a water at constant pressure with cumulative throughput when passing the water through a medium grade sintered glass disk. Application of the test method was made to the water used in the Union Oil Company's experimental water flood of the Chapman zone in the Richfield field, Orange County, Callfornia. This water developed increasing plugging tendencies upon aging, even though the finished water from the plant filter exhibited few such characteristics. The plugging material was found to consist of calcium carbonate, ferric hydroxide, and organic substances that were presumed to be bacterial. Various method of stabilizing this water to prevent the formation of plugging material were attempted. Lowering the pH to approximately 6.4 by injecting carbon dioxide provided a moderately satisfactory means for stabilization but a better method of stabilizing this water was found to be first aging and then filtering. Introduction An experimental water-flood project was started on the Chapman zone of the Richfield field in March 1944 and has been described in a previous paper.' It consists of a single injection well drilled between old producing wells. A water-treating plant using primary alum flocculation, sedimentation and chlorination followed by secondary flocculation, sedimentation and fltration is employed to process the water before in@ion. In all of the water-treating operations, the system is open to the air, and no attempt is made to prevent the loss of carbon dioxide or absorption of oxygen by the water. The clear water is stored in a covered concrete basin and pumped through a Transite line to the suction of a high-pressure pump at the injection well' The high-pressure tubing in the well to the injection zone is cement lined. The untreated injection water is a mixture produced with the oil from the Chapman and Kraemer zones and is supplied from the disposal system. Because the injection well was relatively deep (injection zone about 3400 ft.) and would be expensive to replace, it was believed imperative to supply a nonplug-ging injection water and to develop laboratory procedures for evaluating the treated injection water with respect to its formation plugging properties. This report describes the development and application of the test procedure based on the assumption that the plugging properties could be determined by measuring the progressive decrease in flow rate of the water through a porous medium. If the quality of the injection water was good enough so that the plugging action on the porous medium was of small magnitude, it was reasoned that the tendency to impair flow in the formation would not be serious.

Jan 1, 1946

By William F. Cerini, Willis R. Battles, P. H. Jones

A test for determining the plugging characteristics of an oil-well injection water has been developed. It consists in measuring changes of the filter rate of a water at constant pressure with cumulative throughput when passing the water through a medium grade sintered glass disk. Application of the test method was made to the water used in the Union Oil Company's experimental water flood of the Chapman zone in the Richfield field, Orange County, Callfornia. This water developed increasing plugging tendencies upon aging, even though the finished water from the plant filter exhibited few such characteristics. The plugging material was found to consist of calcium carbonate, ferric hydroxide, and organic substances that were presumed to be bacterial. Various method of stabilizing this water to prevent the formation of plugging material were attempted. Lowering the pH to approximately 6.4 by injecting carbon dioxide provided a moderately satisfactory means for stabilization but a better method of stabilizing this water was found to be first aging and then filtering. Introduction An experimental water-flood project was started on the Chapman zone of the Richfield field in March 1944 and has been described in a previous paper.' It consists of a single injection well drilled between old producing wells. A water-treating plant using primary alum flocculation, sedimentation and chlorination followed by secondary flocculation, sedimentation and fltration is employed to process the water before in@ion. In all of the water-treating operations, the system is open to the air, and no attempt is made to prevent the loss of carbon dioxide or absorption of oxygen by the water. The clear water is stored in a covered concrete basin and pumped through a Transite line to the suction of a high-pressure pump at the injection well' The high-pressure tubing in the well to the injection zone is cement lined. The untreated injection water is a mixture produced with the oil from the Chapman and Kraemer zones and is supplied from the disposal system. Because the injection well was relatively deep (injection zone about 3400 ft.) and would be expensive to replace, it was believed imperative to supply a nonplug-ging injection water and to develop laboratory procedures for evaluating the treated injection water with respect to its formation plugging properties. This report describes the development and application of the test procedure based on the assumption that the plugging properties could be determined by measuring the progressive decrease in flow rate of the water through a porous medium. If the quality of the injection water was good enough so that the plugging action on the porous medium was of small magnitude, it was reasoned that the tendency to impair flow in the formation would not be serious.

Jan 1, 1946

By D. C. Jones

THE term "coal-mine mechanization" is definable in several ways. In its general application it can mean the use of machines instead of manpower in each of the various mining activities necessary for the produc¬tion of coal-so that under this definition a mine that uses mechanical coal cutters could be classed as a mechanized mine. Common usage, however, insists that a mechanized mine is one in which machines are used for the entire process of mining or extraction and transportation of the coal. For the purpose of this paper, then, the second definition of "coal-mine mecha¬nization" will be used, and practices employed in mines where the greater part of the production is obtained through the use of mechanical loaders and conveyors will form the basis for this discussion. PHYSICAL CONTACT HAZARDS If we were to group all the hazards that accompany the use of mechanized equipment in a mine, the predominant class would be that which, for want of a better name, might be termed the "physical contact" hazards; that is, all the sources of danger that lead to accidents through physical contact of workmen with ma¬chines. A survey of accidents in a group of mechanized mines indicated that this class of hazards may be responsible for more than half the number of accidents in mechanized mining. For example, of 21 mining-machine accidents at one mine, 14 were of the physical contact type of 14 loading-machine accidents at the same mine, 8 were the result of physical contact. Certain of these hazards an controllable through the use of guards-¬a guard over the cutting-machine bits whet the machine is being trammed from place to place, or a chain or some similar locking device around the cutter chain, so that an accidental blow or push against the bit control will not cause the cutter chair to move. Other hazards, such as the possibility of. a loader operator having hi foot crushed by a crawler tread, or , brakeman being hit by a loader boon swung too far to one side while a car is being loaded, might be subject to control through the use of guard devices, but the reduction or elimination of all physical contact hazards by such methods doe: not appear feasible. Every accident of the physical contact type should be investigated to discover whether guards could have prevented it, but often the only way in which to combat these hazards will be through the awakened consciousness of each workman as to the danger that exists if he indulges in unsafe practices. A good approach to control of accident: in any mine is the establishment of a set o: safety rules or operating rules. The intent of such rules is to provide guides for the workmen to follow in the operation of equipment. Frequently the workmen have no regard for such rules, and observance is obtained only through compulsion or the part of management. An interesting development in connection with the formation of safety rules occurred during a training program for employees in the

Jan 1, 1946

By T. M. Williams

DURING the year just ended we have had three great fires in the mines in the Wilkes-Barre district. One at the Empire Colliery, one at the Prospect shaft, and the other at the Baltimore old mine. It is proposed in this paper to give a brief history of the fire at the Empire Colliery, and the methods employed in extinguishing it. The fire was first discovered breaking out in the air-stack, alongside what is known as the " Kidder Plane," about one o'clock on the morning of December 31st, 1873. Subsequently it was ascertained that the fire originated in the return airway somewhere near the steam boiler, located inside the mine, near the head of No. 5 slope. The coal from this slope was hoisted to the shaft gangway, at a point nearly four thousand feet distant from the foot of the shaft. As there were from four to five hundred mine cars hoisted per day from this slope the steam boilers were located at this place. The mines being of considerable extent required a large volume of pure air for ventilation, and no fan having been erected at this slope at the time, the heat from the boiler was made use of to assist ventilation, by conveying the return air from No. 5 slope into the large airway made from these boilers to the surface through the old "Kidder slope" to the stack where the fire was first discovered. The length of this slope or airway was about one thousand feet, with a sectional area of about sixty feet. The quantity of air passing through it must have been over sixty thousand cubic feet per minute

Jan 1, 1875

By Charles A. Ashburner

The existence of natural gas-springs in Pennsylvania and the adjoining States west of the crest of the Allegheny Mountains was known to the earliest settlers. Possibly the first gas obtained from a well was at Fredonia, Chautauqua County, N. Y., where a well was sunk on the bank of Canadaway Creek, near the Main Street bridge, in 1821, and sufficient gas obtained for 30 burners, the inn having been illuminated by the gas when General Lafayette passed through the village about 1821. In 1858 another well was drilled, which supplied 200 burners. A still larger one was drilled to a depth of 1200 feet in 1871. According to Mr. E. J. Crissey, Secretary of the Fredonia Natural Gas Light Company, the average monthly supply of these wells in 1880 was 110,000 cubic feet. Since 1859, when the drilling of oil-wells in Western Pennsyl-

Jan 1, 1886

By V. F. Marsters

Peru has produced petroleum since the early seventies, the first work being in the Zorritos field, in the Province of Tumbes, adjoining Ecuador. In the early nineties, the Negritos field, in the Department of Piura, came into prominence, and by 1905 had attained an annual production of 335,160 bbl. The early development of the field was under the general direction of the London & Pacific Petroleum Co., but it is now handled by the International Petroleum Co. In 1900 and 1901, the Lobitos field became the scene of marked activity. In 1905, its total production amounted to 75,000 bbl.; it has continued to increase as has Negritos. From 1897 to 1902, there was prospecting in the region of La Brieta (or Fernandez), on the Mancora River, about 25 to 30 km. from the coast. Small production of a heavy oil was obtained from three different sands. So far as the author knows, no work has been done in that locality since 1902. There are thus four distinct fields in the north endof the Peruvian coastal plain. The, remaining productive locality of Peru is the Pirin or Pusi field, at the northwest end of Lake Titicaca, Department of Puno, in southern Peru. The first prospecting near Pusi was done by Brown Brothers, of Los Angeles, Calif., who obtained modest production about 1906; according to reports, activities ceased about 1914 or 1915. The maximum annual production was obtained about 1908, estimated at 76,000 barrels. Peru possesses two distinct geographic provinces in which we may look for the development of a larger oil industry; namely, the coastal plain province, and the inter-Andean plains.

Jan 7, 1922

By E. J. Dulis, V. K. Chandhok, J. P. Hirth

Cobalt clearly increased the activity of carbon in austenite and in ferrite. This effect of cobalt on carbon activity Plausibly accounted for the effect of cobalt on accelerating the austenite to pearlite transformation. Cobalt was found to have only a slight effect on carbon diffisivity in various Fe-Co and Fe-Co-W-Mo austenites, but was found to decrease carbon diffusivity in Fe-Co ferrite. THE effect of cobalt in steel is unique in that it is the only element that reduces hardenability by accelerating the austenite to pearlite reaction. The results of several excellent investigations aimed at explaining the role of cobalt have been published,1"7 but a complete understanding is still lacking. In addition, cobalt significantly enhances the resistance to softening or tempering of highly alloyed highspeed and hot-work tool steels. The resistance to tempering is related to the secondary hardening reactions associated with the fourth stage of tempering during which carbides of molybdenum, tungsten, and/or vanadium form in a martensite matrix. The effect of cobalt on secondary hardening reactions in high-alloy tool steel has received considerable attention, but a full explanation of the reactions involved has not been developed. Inasmuch as austenite to pearlite transformation and secondary hardening involve carbide formation, the present authors believed that the role of cobalt in effecting carbon activity and diffusivity in austenite and in ferrite was important to a fuller understanding of the phenomena involved. TO investigate the effect of cobalt on the activity coefficient of carbon in austenite, an approach was used similar to that used by Darken17 in his experiments on the effect of silicon, manganese, and molybdenum on carbon activity and diffusivity in austenite. TO

Jan 1, 1962

By W. Rostoker

The process of diffusion alloying of mixed powders offers attractive possibilities both commercially and experimentally. It avoids the fabrication difficulties arising from high alloy contents. Indeed, the process is facilitated by larger alloy additions. The direct formation of the part or test piece and the opportunlity to perform machining operations under more favorable conditions are of no small importance. However, it is necessary to make only brief mention of the interesting features. As yet there have been few attempts to study this process in detail and to carry it to completion, if such is possible. It was intended not only to measure the intermediate and optimum magnetic properties of sintered alloys but to use magnetic testing itself as a means of following the progress of alloying under various condi-tions. Having established that alloys could be successfully synthesized by this tech. nique, the opportunity was taken to study the magnetic properties of several alloys of iron and silicon which had hitherto been too difficult to prepare in suitable test piece form. While avoiding some of the difficulties inherent in the fabrication of alloys by orthodox methods, the diffusion alloying process introduces a few of its own. The first of these is the evaluation of the approach to homogenization. In recent years some notable contributions have been made to this question, but considerable uncertainty remains in its definition and evaluation. This work has concerned itself with further study of this problem and it is hoped that more light has been shed on it. The second of these difficulties arises from the presence of porosity. It is inevitable that in the consolidation of a loose bulk of powder, there should remain some voids unless extremely high pressures are repeatedly applied. It was therefore of importance to investigate their effect on magnetic properties. Recently this effect has been studied and certain predictions made of its behavior. It is believed that the experimental results presented here provide a sound substantiation of the theoretical treatment. The attempt has been made to synthesize five alloys of the iron-silicon system and three each of the iron-nickel and iron-cobalt systems. A series of experiments was also conducted on some of these alloys to test their susceptibility to heat treatment. Some unfortunate experiences have provided opportunity to report data on the deleterious effects of nitrogen on magnetic properties when present as a a in protective atmospheres. MateRIALS, PREPARATION OF SAMPLES and Testing The purest materials available were em. ployed for this work. A specially purified,

Jan 1, 1949

By M. D. Cooper

Production of both anthracite and bituminous coal in 1954 was about 16 pct below 1953. Estimates on Dec. 1, 1954, indicated 27 million tons of anthracite and 385 million tons of bituminous. Decline in production was due principally to lower demand by the steel industry and the railroads, although competition from other fuels also affected coal. The year was notable for vigorous effort by the coal industry to promote the use of its product. A Cabinet Committee on Energy Supplies and Resources Policy and an Interdepartmental Committee on the Soft Coal Industry were set up by the Administration in Washington. A Governors' Fuel Conference was also organized.

Jan 3, 1955

By William Buell

As used in connection with open-hearth or other high-temperature operations, "insulation" refers to a multitude of substances, natural or manufactured, that have the one principal property of preventing the flow of heat by conduction to a greater degree than refractories can prevent it, the principal properties of the latter being resistance to tem-perature and/or chemical action. The term "control" as commonly applied to the mechanization of management functions is inappropriate without qualification, for without some degree of control of every operation we could produce no steel worthy of the name. Although grouped together in this paper, insulation and control in open-hearth furnaces have little, if any, interrelationship, therefore the paper is made up of two distinct parts.

Jan 1, 1935

By J. R. Long, T. R. Graham, C. W. Matthews, R. S. Dean

IN a previous paper§ the authors reported on the mechanical properties of a 65 per cent copper, 10 per cent manganese, 25 per cent zinc alloy as compared with similarly processed cartridge brass. Additional investigations by these laboratories, on higher copper alloys, have demonstrated that at lower zinc concentrations even larger amounts of pure manganese may be added to copper-zinc alloys without exceeding the single-phase solid solution limits, and that similar increases in tensile strength, yield strength, and hardness may be obtained without excessive decreases in ductility. Several compositions in this range showed also a decided color change with increasing manganese. The normal "brassy" color was considerably lightened and reduced to a faint yellow cast at 15 per cent manganese. With higher manganese contents the alloys were essentially white and similar in appearance to the nickel-silver alloys. From this work it appeared that it would be desirable to determine more completely the properties of the wrought and annealed white alloys. Accordingly, a more detailed study was planned of an alloy having the composition 70 per cent copper, 20 per cent manganese, and 10 per cent zinc. This alloy remained single-phase throughout the working and annealing cycles of the preliminary tests and appeared to be about the strongest of the white single-phase alloys. The project included also an investigation of additional alloys, deviating from this composition by 5 per cent of each of the three components to evaluate the effects of variation in composition; also a study of the properties of the central alloy made with silicothermic manganese. MATERIAL PREPARATION Electrolytic manganese, wirebar copper, and electrolytic zinc were used for the preparation of the alloys. Representative analysis of the electrolytic manganese seldom exceeds 0.01 per cent iron, 0.02 per cent sulphur and 0.02 per cent lead, with no silicon or aluminum. A typical sample of the silicothermic manganese metal contained 2 per cent iron, 0.81 per cent silicon, 0.i6 per cent carbon, and 0.36 per cent aluminum. Melting and alloying were performed in a high-frequency furnace with magnesia crucibles. Melts were deoxidized with small aluminum additions and cast into 25-lb. slab ingots. Care was exercised in deoxidation to avoid excessive amounts of residual aluminum, which has been found to have significant effects on alloys in this system. All ingots were hot-rolled at 1200° to 1300°F. and then cold-rolled with intermediate anneal-

Jan 1, 1945

By M. Gensamer

In applied mechanics and in metallurgy the transition from elastic to inelastic action is a matter of considerable interest and importance. Often the first inelastic deformation is apparently quite homogeneous; that is, uniformly distributed throughout the specimen. Sometimes this deformation is heterogeneous; that is, localized; inelastic deformation proceeds to some definite amount in restricted regions before adjacent regions of the specimen are inelastically deformed. In such cases the deformation does not become homogeneous until the whole specimen has been deformed the amount corresponding to that for each localized deformation. If the test is stopped before uniform extension sets in, the heterogeneous character of the deformation is apparent on the surface of the specimen through characteristic markings, which have been called "LÜders'" lines, "Hartmann's" lines, the "Piobert effect," or simply "flow figures." These markings are the source of considerable trouble in fabricating operations, particularly in the deep drawing of steel sheet. In many cases where the transition is of this nature, the stress developed at the upper limit of the elastic range is greater than the stress during the period of heterogeneous deformation, giving rise to the familiar "drop of the beam" effect in testing. The amount of the yield-point elongation, as well as the value of the stress at the lower yield point (the value to which the stress drops when yielding begins), are functions of the temperature and the testing speed. Lower temperatures and faster rates of testing increase both the yield-point elongation and the yield-point stress. These matters have been ably discussed in a recent paper by Winlock and Leiterl though, as brought out by the discussion of that paper, the phenomena are but little understood. The purpose of the present paper is to clarify the problem through the application of a simple principle, and to show that, through the application of this principle, a number of phenomena in the plastic deformation of metals become more readily understood. The principle is this: During homogeneous flow, the rate of work-hardening is greater than the rate of change of stress resulting from change

Jan 1, 1938

By M. Gensamer

In applied mechanics and in metallurgy the transition from elastic to inelastic action is a matter of considerable interest and importance. Often the first inelastic deformation is apparently quite homogeneous; that is, uniformly distributed throughout the specimen. Sometimes this deformation is heterogeneous; that is, localized; inelastic deformation proceeds to some definite amount in restricted regions before adjacent regions of the specimen are inelastically deformed. In such cases the deformation does not become homogeneous until the whole specimen has been deformed the amount corresponding to that for each localized deformation. If the test is stopped before uniform extension sets in, the heterogeneous character of the deformation is apparent on the surface of the specimen through characteristic markings, which have been called "LÜders'" lines, "Hartmann's" lines, the "Piobert effect," or simply "flow figures." These markings are the source of considerable trouble in fabricating operations, particularly in the deep drawing of steel sheet. In many cases where the transition is of this nature, the stress developed at the upper limit of the elastic range is greater than the stress during the period of heterogeneous deformation, giving rise to the familiar "drop of the beam" effect in testing. The amount of the yield-point elongation, as well as the value of the stress at the lower yield point (the value to which the stress drops when yielding begins), are functions of the temperature and the testing speed. Lower temperatures and faster rates of testing increase both the yield-point elongation and the yield-point stress. These matters have been ably discussed in a recent paper by Winlock and Leiterl though, as brought out by the discussion of that paper, the phenomena are but little understood. The purpose of the present paper is to clarify the problem through the application of a simple principle, and to show that, through the application of this principle, a number of phenomena in the plastic deformation of metals become more readily understood. The principle is this: During homogeneous flow, the rate of work-hardening is greater than the rate of change of stress resulting from change

Jan 1, 1938

By A. Blake Caldwell

Northwest frontier is here defined as Alaska, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories and northern British Columbia. The mineral potential of this area is great and will unfold in the decade ahead but now the largest single producer is the Pine Point lead-zinc mine in the NWT about 1200 km north of Edmonton, Alta., close to the south shore of Great Slave Lake. The mill, initially designed for 4540 mtpd, was expanded to 7250 mtpd in 1969. This operation is described in detail in Mining and Concentrating of Lead and Zinc, Vol.1, Chapt. 17, SME/AIME in the article by W. H. R. Gibney.

Jan 1, 1971

By F. D. Dietiker

After determination of the requirements for a given application, proper selection of a belt conveyor is made from tables and formulas commonly used by conveyor designers. Belt conveyors, which are universally accepted as a means of transporting bulk materials, also perform the important functions of stockpiling and reclaiming.

Jan 1, 1978

By Frederic Benard

The treatment of Balbach-Thum slimes at Copper Cliff by the Ontario Refining Co, is of interest because it differs considerably from methods usually employed for the recovery of fine gold from parting-plant slimes. Owing to the comparatively high percentages of palladium and platinum, wet methods are used to remover the greater proportion of these metals before electrolytic refining in the Wohlwill cells. The Plant The platinum-metals department, Wohlwill room, and gold-melting room extend along the north side of the silver refinery and are separated from the parting plant by a glass partition (Figs. 1 and 2). The platinum-metals department resembles a laboratory built on a large scale, with the various pieces of equipment laid out on terraces to facilitate handling. Because of the corrosive nature of the solutions, chemical stoneware is used throughout. Elevation of acids is accomplished by means of Mariotte bottles. On the top level are three steam-jacketed stoneware kettles of 50-gal. capacity, also a packed tower. One kettle is used for digesting the slimes while the remaining kettles are used for precipitating the gold. The dissolver is equippcd with a treated concrete hood, which is connected to the flue system. Gases are drawn off through the packed tower by means of a 6-in. stoneware exhaust fan. A 15 per cent solution of sodium carbonate is continually circulated through the tower. On the intermediate level are two suition filters, one for removing silver chloride and the other for the gold sand. The filter medium consists of an asbestos pad covered with a filter paper on which is a layer of twill. On the bottom level are two rectangular cementation tanks, 24 by 48 by 24 in. deep, and a suction filter used for removing the platinum-metal concentrates. The circulating pump for the packed tower is also here. Suction is provided by a vacuum pump having a capacity of 8 cu. ft. at 20-in. vacuum.

Jan 1, 1944

By E. T. Dumble

The history of the several petroleum deposits of Texas and Mexico, or of the sediments in which they now occur, if the deposits are not indigenous to such sediments, is known in a general way only, but it nevertheless casts strong light on the conditions surrounding them and is of great importance in the search for and exploitation of them. The petroleum deposits of Texas are separable into two main divisions: 1. The deposits of northwestern Texas, which are directly connected with the Oklahoma fields to the north, and have no representatives at all in the Mexican area. 2. The deposits of the coastal area, which extend into Louisiana on the east and connect with those of the Mexican coast to the south. Early in the Pennsylvanian period a series of bituminous shales and limestones were laid down over a broad area in Texas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma. These are known as the Bend series in Texas, the Caney shales in Oklahoma, and the Fayetteville beds in Arltansas. Following their deposition an uplift occurred, forming the Lampasas geanticlinal, which runs northeastward from the old Paleozoic land area of the Llano region toward Red River. The Bend series is petroliferous in places and has furnished a few producing wells on each side of the Lampasas uplift. This uplift forms the barrier and dividing line between the two divisions of the Texas petroleum deposits. To the west of it, in waters which were the southcrn extension of the interior continental seas, in connection with the sedimcnts and coal beds of the Pennsylvanian and Permian, great quantities of petroleum were deposited either as oil or as "potential petroleum." These sediments have been subject to very slight disturbance, and only very gentle folds are found, with no signs of volcanic action in any part of the area. The conditions, therefore, indicate that the greater part, if not all, of the oil in this area is indigenous to the beds in which it is found. East of the anticlinal the oldest beds which appear in contact with the Bend are the Trinity Sands of the Lower Cretaceous. No evidence has

Jan 1, 1916

By Charles L. Mantell, B. G. Shah

SINCE the beginning of the industry, commercial electrolytic manganese has followed the Shelton patent' among others, which called for the addition of sulfur dioxide in controlled amounts, to a purified manganese sulfate-ammonium sulfate at a controlled pH. Every attempt to eliminate sulfur dioxide additions has resulted in operating difficulties, chiefly solution of the deposited metal and lowered current efficiencies. Many replacements for sulfur dioxide have been proposed and studied, chiefly sulfur compounds, urea, thiourea, and proteins similar to those employed successfully in copper refining. It has been suggested that sulfur dioxide is a re-ductant for higher-valence manganese compounds, or that it is reduced by manganese metal in the deposit to hyposulfites or its compounds, and that these might affect the cathode film or the deposition potential, or the overvoltage of manganese. The additives were studied following the method of Mantel1 and Ferment2 who determined the feasibility of current-potential curves as an analytical tool for monitoring manganese elec trowinning solutions for metallic impurities: nickel, cobalt, silver, copper, zinc, molybdenum, cadmium, magnesium, and sodium. The individual effect of each on the standard polarization was determined for a range of concentrations. Not all affected the polarization curve; cadmium, magnesium, and sodium had no effect. Nickel, cobalt, silver, copper, and zinc yielded a correlation between transition current and concentration of impurity.

Jan 1, 1968

By R. R. Sayers

Ventilation may be defined as the process by which vitiated air of an enclosed or partly enclosed space is continuously replaced by fresh air. Fresh air has been defined as invigorating pure air. Pure dry air at sea level contains the following gases:1 Analysis of Air at Sea Level Per Cent. Oxygen.................................................. 20.94 Nitrogen................................................. 78.09 Carbon dioxide........................................... 0.03 Argon................................................... 0.94 Helium, krypton, neon, xenon, hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide, ammonia, ozone........................................ traces Carbon Dioxide Limit For many years carbon dioxide was used as an index of the purity of the air vitiated by the metabolism of people. It was, however, well known that the untoward effects produced on those exposed to such air was not due to the concentration of the carbon dioxide. It has been found that the untoward effects on the comfort and efficiency of those so exposed are due to the increased temperature and humidity. It has been found that men can breathe air containing many times the amount of carbon dioxide found in our worst ventilated theaters and assembly halls, which, according to Rosenau, do not contain above 0.5 per cent, carbon dioxide. Nevertheless, in mines it sometimes occurs in sufficient quantities to cause symptoms in men or even unconsciousness and death. One-half of 1 per cent. of carbon dioxide in normal air causes a slight and unnotice-able increase in the ventilation of the lungs, that is, a man exposed to one-ha,lf of 1 per cent. of carbon dioxide will breathe a little deeper and a little faster than when in pure air. If 2 per cent. of carbon dioxide is in the air, the lung ventilation will be increased about 50 per cent.; if there

Jan 1, 1927

By R. I. Lahring, C. G. Inks

A surfactant waterflood, using a block copolymer of ethylene and propylene oxide (PLURONIC L64*), wa., started in 1956 in Kansas to determine the commercial feasibility of such a process. The production formation was the Bartlesville sand at a depth of 1,400 ft. Leares in the test area had attained both primary and secondary production peaks, and were on a normal decline when the tests were initiated. The injection wells were taking water at a reasonable pressure and none of the operating conditions were particularly unusual. The leases were selected primarily because of normal operating conditions, and not because of any serious problems demanding remedie>,. Oil production and water injection data were recorded during the 10-year test period, and their compilation indicates that the surfactant resulted in an increase of about 9 percent in secondary oil production. Other benefits derived from the surfactant injection were lower injection pressure that resulted in reduced power consumption and reduced erosion of the pumps; and lower calcium scale buildup. These fringe benefits more than offset the cost of the surfactant used. Introduction During the past several decades, considerable research has been carried out on secondary recovery of crude oil that remains in the producing formation despite the most efficient, current primary production practices. Methods are constantly sought of increasing recovery of oil, while at the same time improving the economic efficiency of operations. One method that has received intensive study over the years is the use of a surfactant as a waterflood additive. Laboratory tests show conclusively that dilute solutions of surfactants remove considerably more oil from uncon-solidated sand cores than does water alone.'- The loss of surfactant by adsorption at solid-liquid interfaces has caused serious doubt that surfactants can be used economically as waterflooding additives. This is especially true with anionic and cationic surfactants, and to a lesser extent with nonionic surfactants. This work was undertaken to determine the effectiveness in increasing oil production by injecting water containing small quantities of a nonionic surfactant. The surfactant selected was PLURONIC L64*, a block copolymer based on ethylene and propylene oxide, having the following structure The selection of the test site, a typical shoe-string sandstone type of field located at Batesville pool, Toronto District of Woodson County, Kans., was made because of its normal primary and secondary recovery operating conditions, and not because of any serious operating problems. When the tests were begun, the field was experiencing the customary post-peak production decline of a waterflood. Using for the tests a field that was on a normal production decline, while maintaining constant all variables other than the addition of the surfactant. was of varamount importance if success or failure was to be attributed to a particular cause. It was reasoned that if a surfactant was added to the injection waters and nothing else was done to influence the oil production or injection of water, the effects of the surfactant on the flood could be determined precisely. Production History The first well in the tested field was drilled in 1935. Gas repressurization began immediately, but it was not until Aug., 1938, that the major portion of the field was developed. During the period of repressurization, 1,700 MMcf of gas was injected. As can be seen from the curves of Fig. 1, the production peak from gas injection was attained in 1937 and a normal production decline followed. Early in 1942, water injection wells were drilled and injection of water Was initiated. The amount of water injected increased as more injection wells were drilled until a peak injection rate of 2,700 BID was reached in

Jan 1, 1969