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By K. V. Lindell

THE 70-mile serpentine belt of eastern Quebec, producing 70 pct of the world's chrysotile, has 11 operating mines, two of which are underground, eight are open-pit, and one is both open-pit and underground. The combined operation, the Jeffrey mine, of the Canadian Johns-Manville Co., Ltd. is the largest producer in the group. Haulage All four of the separate operations falling under transportation at the Johns-Manville Jeffery Mine at Asbestos, P. Q., is handled by the company owned Asbestos and Danville Railway. A variety of equipment is operated over the 25 miles standard gage railway. Included in the scope of transportation are: 1-Hauling mill rock to the mill. 2-Hauling stripping and waste rock to the waste dump. 3-Hauling mill tailings to the tailings dump. 4-Hauling supplies from, and finished products to Danville. Main line tracks are permanent, but those within the pit and on the dumps have to be relocated constantly to follow the mining face and dump edges. Tracks within rock areas in the mine are laid on steel ties and can be moved by a bulldozer. Standard mechanical track shifters move tracks in dirt areas in the mine and on the dumps. Train-movements, both within the mine and over the out-lying tracks are controlled by a dispatcher located at the southwest rim of the pit. Steam locomotives haul all stripping, waste rock, and ore from the mine to the gathering yard at the northwest rim of the pit. Normally, two trains per operating shovel are used, with adjustment for optimum loading. In the event of shovel loading on the bottom level or in good stripping, service may be increased to three or four trains per shovel. From the gathering yard a 100 ton diesel-electric locomotive hauls the mill rock to the mill slips, a distance of about three miles. Electric or steam locomotives haul the waste rock and stripping to the waste dump located about two and one-half miles from the mine. Stripping cars are sprayed with a chloride solution and "gravelled" to prevent wet stripping from freezing in the cars during the cold months. Cars pass under a shaking screen which distributes an even

Jan 1, 1952

By M. Muskat, H. G. Botset

Any information that will increase the accuracy of our knowledge of the conditions prevailing in petroleum reservoirs should be of direct value in the determination of the proper operating technique as well as in the estimation of reserves and of ultimate production. The obvious method of obtaining this information is by studying a sample of the reservoir rock and its contents. In any such study, the problem of primary importance and maximum difficulty is that of getting the core to the surface in such a manner that its original fluid content is undisturbed, which has so far proved to be an impossible task. Though it might be rash to say this will never be done, it is certainly safe to assume that a, method for the recovery of a core at the surface in its undisturbed original state may not be developed in the immediate future, and certainly will not be forthcoming without a great deal of costly experimentation. Therefore any information that may be obtained that will help to correlate the state of a core (its fluid saturation) at the surface with its condition at the time it was drilled should be of value to the petroleum industry. The experiments described in this paper were undertaken with the purpose of determining, if possible, any relationship that might exist between the saturation of a core at the surface and its original fluid content. No consideration has been given to the question of contamination by penetration of drilling water, since this problem has been extensively studied by other investigators.1-3 Furthermore, it was regarded as outside the scope of these experiments, which were concerned only with the effect of pressure reduction upon the liquid content of cores. In an experimental study of this sort involving a large number of variables, accurate control of all factors is very important. The essential and obvious procedure is to vary systematically one factor or condition while keeping all the others constant, which necessarily involves a rather protracted and sometimes tedious experimental program. The procedure adopted was essentially very simple, and consisted merely in filling a given core with fluid (gas and oil, gas and water, or

Jan 1, 1939

By J. O. Mack, J. B. Russell

In recent years, solders containing 20 per cent tin with no bismuth or cadmium have been developed by a few companies, and personnel have been properly instructed in their use. In addition, since the tin shortage, a number of solders containing less than 10 per cent Sn, and some with no tin, are being used in special applications; however, a solder of this type has yet to be developed that is satisfactory for general use. Table i.—Composition Ranges Prescribed for a Commercial Substitute Solder Element Per Cent Tin............................ 18.0-20.0 Bismuth (maximum)a............ 0. 80 Silver.......................... O. 10-1. 25 Bismuth plus silver (minimum).... 0. 85 Antimony (maximum)............ o. 50 copper (maximum),,,,,,,,..,,,, 0. I3 Other elements, each (maximum)6 0.03 Lead........................... balance a When silver is present in excess of I per cent, the Bi content shall be 0.50 per cent or over. b Total not to exceed 0.10 per cent. The Purpose of this investigation was to develop an alloy containing a maximum of 15 per cent tin, with no cadmium or bismuth, having solder properties equivalent to or better than those of substitute solders now specified containing 18 to 20 per cent tin (Table I), or even approaching the properties of the standard 40 to 60 tin-lead solder. The wartime restriction of bismuth and cadmium, elements that have beneficial effects on fluidity, solidification range and strength, makes it increasingly difficult to develop a general-purpose solder containing a maximum of 15 per cent tin. In the course of this investigation, 11 elements were used in various combinations with the basic I5-85 tin-lead alloy. These elements were antimony, silver, copper, indium, thallium, lithium, calcium, barium, potassium, sodium and arsenic. In all, 116 low-tin solders were investigated, with the idea of developing a solder that will give satisfactory working properties, specifically in regard to "wetting" of copper, brass and iron, solidification range, capillarity and shear strength of a soldered joint. The relative importance of these various properties plays an important role in the search for substitute solders, since it is almost impossible to retain all of the desired qualities of a high-tin solder and still make drastic changes in the alloy composition. Because of the expected uses of a general-purpose solder, it is necessary that it have properties, especially in regard to wet-tability, that will enable it to be used on the metals in common use. Basic Considerations The maximum liquidus temperature of a solder is determined by the particular application involved and the temperature that can be obtained by the source of heat. If a soldering iron is used, it must not only

Jan 1, 1945

By Frederick L. Knouse

The south border of Espirito Santo begins about 400 km. north of Rio de Janeiro and extends along the Atlantic Coast northward some 325 km. and inland 100 to 150 km. The area under consideration, where quartz crystal of strategic grades has been mined, extends from 19º to 21º and 30º south latitude; and from 40º to 41º and 30º west longitude. This includes the central part of Espirito santo, chiefly south of the Rio Doce from the Atlantic ocean, and west across the border into Minas Gerais near the town of Aimores, in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais; Baixo Guandu, Santa Teresa, Santa Leopoldina, Colatina, Joao Neiva, Fundao and Domingo Mar-tines, Espirito Santo (Fig. I). During 1943 and the first half of 1944, this region accounted for approximately 3 to 5 per cent of the quartz crystal produced in Brazil. Shipments of crystal have been made chiefly by rail to Rio de Janeiro. This region is serviced by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Leopoldina to Rio de Janeiro through vitoria; and by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Centra] do Brasil through Bello Horizonte, Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro. The major deposits are accessible from the railheads by dirt roads, some being 5 to 30 km. off the road, reached by trail. In 1943 and the first half of 1944, the bulk of the production was from inter- mountain marshes and adjoining hillside alluvial placer deposits in the zone surrounding the town of Santa Teresa. Most of these deposits were formed from the erosion of pegmatite~, quartz veins and pockets in the gneiss, with minor quantities produced from miarolitic cavity fillings in the granitic rock. Early Operations Mining of quartz crystal in this region began in 1928 and has been stimulated by the market demand for military uses. Before 1936 little attention was given to it, either in Espirito Santo or eastern Minas Gerais. From 1936 to 1941 the Japanese sent agents to various points of production or potential production to acquire quartz through purchase. They bought crysta1 as small as 10 grams. Since '94' only the United States and Great Britain have received quartz from Brazil. The United States purchases crystals of 100 grams and larger for strategic purposes. The first known discoveries were made either in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais, or in Baixo Guandu, 01 Domingos Martines, Espirito Santo. Marketable quartz crysta1 was first found either in the massive quartz replacement veins of the Victor Hugo mine in the municipality of Domingo Martines, or in the large 'ores of quartz in the pegmatites near Baixo Guandu, extending into Minas Gerais. Production The production of quartz in Espirito Santo from 1936 through 1941 as recorded

Jan 1, 1948

By Frederick L. Knouse

The south border of Espirito Santo begins about 400 km. north of Rio de Janeiro and extends along the Atlantic Coast northward some 325 km. and inland 100 to 150 km. The area under consideration, where quartz crystal of strategic grades has been mined, extends from 19º to 21º and 30º south latitude; and from 40º to 41º and 30º west longitude. This includes the central part of Espirito santo, chiefly south of the Rio Doce from the Atlantic ocean, and west across the border into Minas Gerais near the town of Aimores, in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais; Baixo Guandu, Santa Teresa, Santa Leopoldina, Colatina, Joao Neiva, Fundao and Domingo Mar-tines, Espirito Santo (Fig. I). During 1943 and the first half of 1944, this region accounted for approximately 3 to 5 per cent of the quartz crystal produced in Brazil. Shipments of crystal have been made chiefly by rail to Rio de Janeiro. This region is serviced by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Leopoldina to Rio de Janeiro through vitoria; and by the E. F. Minas-Vitoria and E. F. Centra] do Brasil through Bello Horizonte, Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro. The major deposits are accessible from the railheads by dirt roads, some being 5 to 30 km. off the road, reached by trail. In 1943 and the first half of 1944, the bulk of the production was from inter- mountain marshes and adjoining hillside alluvial placer deposits in the zone surrounding the town of Santa Teresa. Most of these deposits were formed from the erosion of pegmatite~, quartz veins and pockets in the gneiss, with minor quantities produced from miarolitic cavity fillings in the granitic rock. Early Operations Mining of quartz crystal in this region began in 1928 and has been stimulated by the market demand for military uses. Before 1936 little attention was given to it, either in Espirito Santo or eastern Minas Gerais. From 1936 to 1941 the Japanese sent agents to various points of production or potential production to acquire quartz through purchase. They bought crysta1 as small as 10 grams. Since '94' only the United States and Great Britain have received quartz from Brazil. The United States purchases crystals of 100 grams and larger for strategic purposes. The first known discoveries were made either in the municipalities of Aimores, Minas Gerais, or in Baixo Guandu, 01 Domingos Martines, Espirito Santo. Marketable quartz crysta1 was first found either in the massive quartz replacement veins of the Victor Hugo mine in the municipality of Domingo Martines, or in the large 'ores of quartz in the pegmatites near Baixo Guandu, extending into Minas Gerais. Production The production of quartz in Espirito Santo from 1936 through 1941 as recorded

Jan 1, 1948

By G. R. Gardner, D. H. Davis

Increasing realization of the importance of dust control, and the recommendations of various agencies, have led the mining industry to become actively concerned with this problem. The background and necessity for adequate dust-suppression measures have been discussed in a number of publications, including those of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, and the use of spray water to reduce dust at the face and on roadways has been recommended. The problem resolves itself into obtaining adequate dust reduction at a reasonable cost. Inasmuch as the term "adequate dust suppression" has never been clearly defined, nor have permissible limits of dustiness (in terms of dust count) been established, it is apparent that any method selected may be required to meet additional demands. Until the industry has been given some indication of permissible limits of dustiness, no permanent solution is possible. Progress will be somewhat handicapped until such information is available. In addition, dust reduction must be obtained without the addition of any excessive moisture to the coal, since consideration must often be given to: I. Quality standards, particularly reduction in heat value. 2. Handling characteristics, particularly in regard to unloading from railroad cars and bins. 3. Application of dry methods of coal cleaning. 4. Necessity for fine screening within specified limits of oversize and undersize. Little detailed information is available as to the advantages and disadvantages of the several methods of water distribution, the location and protection of sprays, operating data on pressure, quantity of water, and so forth, and results obtained. In 1940 an investigation was undertaken to determine and evaluate the principal factors involved. This paper constitutes a progress report on this work and cannot in any way be regarded as complete on any one of the several phases. Classification of Dust Sources The various sources of underground dust may be classified as primary or secondary. A primary source is one associated with appreciable degradation of size, that is, where the greater part of the actual fines capable of becoming air-borne dust are produced. A secondary source may be considered as one in which the greater part of the fines have been produced at some previous operation and are in such condition that they can be dispersed as air-borne dust. These conceptions appear to be of practical significance, as experience indicates that when dust is controlled at the primary sources the importance of secondary sources is minimized. For these reasons, investigations to date have been concerned principally with the primary sources of dust, and this paper is concerned particularly with one of these—namely, undercutting. In accord with the foregoing definitions, the sources to which the following opera-

Jan 1, 1942

By G. R. Gardner, D. H. Davis

Increasing realization of the importance of dust control, and the recommendations of various agencies, have led the mining industry to become actively concerned with this problem. The background and necessity for adequate dust-suppression measures have been discussed in a number of publications, including those of the U. S. Bureau of Mines, and the use of spray water to reduce dust at the face and on roadways has been recommended. The problem resolves itself into obtaining adequate dust reduction at a reasonable cost. Inasmuch as the term "adequate dust suppression" has never been clearly defined, nor have permissible limits of dustiness (in terms of dust count) been established, it is apparent that any method selected may be required to meet additional demands. Until the industry has been given some indication of permissible limits of dustiness, no permanent solution is possible. Progress will be somewhat handicapped until such information is available. In addition, dust reduction must be obtained without the addition of any excessive moisture to the coal, since consideration must often be given to: I. Quality standards, particularly reduction in heat value. 2. Handling characteristics, particularly in regard to unloading from railroad cars and bins. 3. Application of dry methods of coal cleaning. 4. Necessity for fine screening within specified limits of oversize and undersize. Little detailed information is available as to the advantages and disadvantages of the several methods of water distribution, the location and protection of sprays, operating data on pressure, quantity of water, and so forth, and results obtained. In 1940 an investigation was undertaken to determine and evaluate the principal factors involved. This paper constitutes a progress report on this work and cannot in any way be regarded as complete on any one of the several phases. Classification of Dust Sources The various sources of underground dust may be classified as primary or secondary. A primary source is one associated with appreciable degradation of size, that is, where the greater part of the actual fines capable of becoming air-borne dust are produced. A secondary source may be considered as one in which the greater part of the fines have been produced at some previous operation and are in such condition that they can be dispersed as air-borne dust. These conceptions appear to be of practical significance, as experience indicates that when dust is controlled at the primary sources the importance of secondary sources is minimized. For these reasons, investigations to date have been concerned principally with the primary sources of dust, and this paper is concerned particularly with one of these—namely, undercutting. In accord with the foregoing definitions, the sources to which the following opera-

Jan 1, 1942

By W. L. Phillips

The plastic properties of lithium fluoride and magnesium oxide under compression were investigated in the temperature range 25° to 1000°C. At the higher test temperatures, the critical resolved shear stress and the rate of work-hardening of both materials decreased. At the same time, the number of stress lines decreased and the individual stress lines became wider. The density of dislocations decreased for a given strain the higher the test temperature for lithium fluoride. The decrease in the critical resolved shear stress as a function of temperature could be fitted by the equation 7 = Toe-KT. THE influence of temperature on the stress-strain curves of a variety of metal single crystals has been studied for a wide range of temperature.1"5 In general, it has been found that both the critical resolved shear stress and the rate of work-hardening decrease rapidly with increasing temperature and fall to a value of essentially zero well before the melting point is reached. AS the test temperature is increased, the density of slip lines has been found to decrease, while the width of the individual lines increases. Recently, Gallagher,' Graf et al.,7 and Pate1 and Alexander8 have found that single crystals of germanium and silicon, which have a covalent bond, can be plastically deformed at elevated temperatures. In compressing germanium it has been found that the strain-hardening coefficient decreased very rapidly as the temperature was increased. The coefficient did not tend to zero, however, as the melting point was approached. The plastic properties of ionic crystals at elevated temperatures have not been extensively investigated. In the only work previously reported Tamman and salge9 and Theile10 have shown that the yield point of sodium chloride single crystals tested in tension and compression decreased slowly with increasing temperature, falling to zero at the melting point. As the temperature was increased, they found a substantial increase in the amount of plastic deformation that could be sustained before fracture; and at temperatures above 400°C in tension tests there was an obvious necking which produced local extensions of up to 3000 pct. The purpose of the present work is to extend the knowledge of high-temperature deformation to the ionic crystals, lithium fluoride and magnesium oxide. The following were investigated: 1) The gross shape of the stress-strain curve at several temperatures. 2) The change in the critical resolved shear stress as a function of temperature. 3) The appearance of slip bands and the density of dislocations as a function of strain and temperature. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES The lithium fluoride and magnesium oxide used in this investigation were purchased from the Harshaw

Jan 1, 1961

By Robert I. Jaffee, Bruce W. Gonser, Eugene M. Smith

THERE has been little investigation of the gold-germanium binary alloys. Haughton1 does not mention any work on the system. In a review article commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of germanium, E. Einecke2 mentioned a gold germanium eutectic at 24 atomic per cent Ge (10.4 weight per cent) melting at 359°C., but did not give the source of his information. From measurements of electrical conductivity, J. 0. Linde3 estimated that at least o.6 weight per cent germanium is soluble in gold. The recent availability of germanium in this country in commercial quantities has led to interest in its properties and its alloys. This study is part of a program of investigation on germanium alloys; work on ternary alloys involving germanium and gold will be reported later. In this investigation, the composition and melting point of the Au-Ge eutectic reported by Einecke has been found to be substantially correct. Eutectic composition has been placed at 12,0 per cent germanium, however. An alloy of 10.4 per cent Ge, Einecke's value, was found to have a few gold dendrites in it. The eutectic temperature has been determined as 356.0 ± 0.5°C., slightly less than the temperature of 359°C reported by Einecke. The liquidus curves and the solid solubility of germanium in gold have been determined, and are shown in Fig. I. MATERIALS AND ALLOYING The germanium used in this investigation was prepared by the Eagle-Picher Lead Co. from pure germanium oxide, by reduction in clay crucibles with sodium cyanide. The regulus is quite pure, assaying over 99.9 per cent Ge. High-purity gold obtained from Handy and Harmon was used. Alloying was carried out in graphite crucibles in an atmosphere of purified hydrogen. The temperature was brought up to 1050° to 1100°C., and the metal was allowed to freeze in the crucible. Prepared in this way, the gold dendrites in hypoeutectic alloys were somewhat segregated at the bottom and sides of the ingot, and on the hypereutectic side the lighter primary germanium tended to gather at the top. Most of the alloys were made from virgin metal. Low-germanium heats were made by alloying pure gold with the eutectic. Melting losses were consistently a few milligrams or less, and the composition could safely be taken from the intended analysis. The 30 per cent and 50 per cent germanium heats for thermal analysis were made in part from remelted higher germanium heats, and they may be off composition as much as one per cent. Because of the high cost of materials, the weight of heats for thermal analysis were 15 to 20 grams and heats for metallographic, X-ray, and hardness specimens were 2 to 4 grams.

Jan 1, 1945

By Bernard Kopelman

The particle size of tungsten metal powder used to make tungsten wire for use in radio tubes and incandescent lamps must be closely controlled if the highly desirable feature of nonsagging is to be achieved. Our knowledge of factors affecting the particle size of tungsten powder has been limited by lack of any extensive literature on the subject. There are no publications in the English language discussing this problem in any but the most general terms. In this paper the published experimental information on this subject is reviewed. Based on the published data and some experimental data obtained by the author, a general theory of factors affecting the particle size of tungsten metal powder obtained by reduction of the oxides in hydrogen is offered. The various forms of the tungsten oxides and tungsten metal used in the experiments described were those prepared by commercial processes, so that the experimental results obtained on a laboratory scale would be more directly applicable to actual commercial reduction conditions. The effects of time of reduction, temperature. and concentration of water vapor in the hydrogen were observed by counting microscopically the particle distribution obtained. Such a method is very time-consuming, but the data obtained by this method are more reliable and more fundamental than those obtained by any of the several instruments available for measurement of particle size. Review of the Literature Until the year 1912, tungsten powder was prepared commercially by reducing tungstic oxide in the presence of carbon or one of its compounds (such as glycerin or ethylene glycol), usually by firing the mixture in a closed fire-clay crucible. The resultant powder contained about 95 per cent tungsten.' When reduction of tungsten oxides by H² was introduced Commercially,²,³ several investigators became concerned with the equilibria between tungsten metal and its several oxides in an atmosphere of hydrogen and water vapor.4-l3 While these many investigations were in fair agreement on the equilibria WO³ + H2 = WO2 + H2O and WO2 + 2H2 = W + 2H2O there arose considerable controversy as to the chemical composition of the oxide between WO³ and WO², because of very poor agreement on the equilibrium constant of this intermediate oxide reduction reaction. The controversy on this intermediate oxide has been in progress for more than 100 years. Thus Malguti,14 in 1835, decided it was WO2.56 In 1857, Riche15 proposed the formula W³O8. Usler,16 in 1865, confirmed the existence of WsO8 and further proposed W1O1l. In 1897, Desil7 agreed upon W²O8 but also found W5O14.

Jan 1, 1947

By Bernard Kopelman

The particle size of tungsten metal powder used to make tungsten wire for use in radio tubes and incandescent lamps must be closely controlled if the highly desirable feature of nonsagging is to be achieved. Our knowledge of factors affecting the particle size of tungsten powder has been limited by lack of any extensive literature on the subject. There are no publications in the English language discussing this problem in any but the most general terms. In this paper the published experimental information on this subject is reviewed. Based on the published data and some experimental data obtained by the author, a general theory of factors affecting the particle size of tungsten metal powder obtained by reduction of the oxides in hydrogen is offered. The various forms of the tungsten oxides and tungsten metal used in the experiments described were those prepared by commercial processes, so that the experimental results obtained on a laboratory scale would be more directly applicable to actual commercial reduction conditions. The effects of time of reduction, temperature. and concentration of water vapor in the hydrogen were observed by counting microscopically the particle distribution obtained. Such a method is very time-consuming, but the data obtained by this method are more reliable and more fundamental than those obtained by any of the several instruments available for measurement of particle size. Review of the Literature Until the year 1912, tungsten powder was prepared commercially by reducing tungstic oxide in the presence of carbon or one of its compounds (such as glycerin or ethylene glycol), usually by firing the mixture in a closed fire-clay crucible. The resultant powder contained about 95 per cent tungsten.' When reduction of tungsten oxides by H² was introduced Commercially,²,³ several investigators became concerned with the equilibria between tungsten metal and its several oxides in an atmosphere of hydrogen and water vapor.4-l3 While these many investigations were in fair agreement on the equilibria WO³ + H2 = WO2 + H2O and WO2 + 2H2 = W + 2H2O there arose considerable controversy as to the chemical composition of the oxide between WO³ and WO², because of very poor agreement on the equilibrium constant of this intermediate oxide reduction reaction. The controversy on this intermediate oxide has been in progress for more than 100 years. Thus Malguti,14 in 1835, decided it was WO2.56 In 1857, Riche15 proposed the formula W³O8. Usler,16 in 1865, confirmed the existence of WsO8 and further proposed W1O1l. In 1897, Desil7 agreed upon W²O8 but also found W5O14.

Jan 1, 1947

THERE is probably no phase of basic open-hearth steelmaking that is more of an art and less of a science than mold and pouring practice. It varies widely from plant to plant; consequently it is obviously impossible to set down in detail in this chapter the many ramifications of practice that are now used. The discussion that follows therefore attempts only to give an outline of the more common methods, with examples sufficient to indicate some of the variations in procedure, and to emphasize a few of the many underlying problems that face the open-hearth operator at the pouring platform. MOLD DESIGN Ingot molds are hollow castings of considerable wall thickness. Despite this, non-uniformity in wall thickness should be strictly avoided to prevent the setting up of unnecessary stresses. Molds are cast in various forms, sizes, and shapes depending on the type of steel, and on whether the ingot is to be withdrawn from the mold or the mold from the ingot. The selection of ingot-mold material, which is usually cupola or blast-furnace iron containing approximately 3.5 per cent carbon, 1 per cent silicon, 0.9 per cent manganese, 0.2 per cent phosphorus, and 0.07 per cent sulphur, is governed by numerous considerations that affect mold life. (1) Factors in addition to wall thickness that should be given primary consideration at the foundry are casting skin, shrinkage stresses, and casting temperature. Factors in Mold Design. In use, mold thickness is of greatest importance, for it must be heavy enough to freeze the molten metal rising in the mold and to reduce the temperature of the steel below that of the melting point of cast iron to prevent the inner surface of the mold from melting, which would result in the welding of the ingot to the mold. The skin of an ingot, which solidities immediately upon contact with the relatively cold walls of the mold, must soon become thick enough to contract on the fluid mass and pull away slightly from the sides of the mold. The separation of the ingot from the mold depends entirely on the heat taken up by the mold from the steel.

Jan 1, 1944

By E. A. Peretti

BEFORE embarking on a detailed investigation of the system indium-antimony-bismuth, experiments were carried out to determine the existence of quasi-binary sections. The bordering binary systems are known1 and show the occurrence of three intermetallic binary species corresponding closely to InSb, InBi and In2Bi. Attention was focused on the low-indium end of the ternary diagram where the possible quasi-binary sections, excluding ternary compound formation, would involve the pairs: InSb-Bi, InBi-Sb and InSb-InBi. The latter pair revealed itself as a true quasi-binary, so it was investigated fully by thermal analysis, x-ray and microscopic examinations. All compositions were made by proper combination of three elements involved. The indium had a guaranteed purity of 99.97 pet; the antimony contained 99.99 pet Sb, and the bismuth had a purity of 99.99 pet. Alloys were made by melting together antimony, bismuth and indium in evacuated, sealed pyrex-glass tubes at a temperature of 600°C with vigorous agitation. The melts, weighing about 80 grams, were allowed to freeze in the sealed tubes and finally were transferred to glass tubes for the taking of cooling and heating curves. A protective atmosphere of helium was used, and the melts were stirred mechanically while cooling at rates of from 0.5 to 3°C per min. Temperatures were measured with a calibrated chromel-alumel thermocouple and were recorded graphically on a Minneapolis-Honeywell extended-range recorder working in conjunction with a Leeds and Northrup type K-2 potentiometer. Conventional polishing techniques gave satisfactory results in preparing specimens for microscopic examination. Etching was carried out with Vilella's reagent or aqueous mixtures of chromic oxide with either nitric acid or sulfuric acid plus dichromate. Conclusions deduced from the thermal analysis and microscopic examinations were confirmed by X-ray photograms using Co-K alpha radiation. The phase diagram is shown in Fig. 1. The liqui-dus consists of an uninterrupted line running from the freezing point of InSb (525°C) to a eutectic point experimentally indistinguishable from the freezing point of InBi (110°C). X-ray patterns of the InSb show a slight expansion of the lattice with the addition of InBi, and microscopic work indicated the solid solubility of InBi in InSb to be less than 0.5 pet at room temperature. Acknowledgment We wish to thank the Indium Corporation of America for the loan of the indium used in this investigation. References 1 E. A. Peretti and S. C. Carapella, Jr.: Trans. ASM., 1949, vol. 41, P. 947. T. S. Liu and E. A. Peretti: Trans. ASM, 1952, vol. 44, p. 539. Metals Reference Book, vol. 1, 2nd ed., AIME, p. 345.

Jan 1, 1959

By Edwin T. Myskowski, Alfred H. Hesse

THE development by the U. S. Bureau of Mines of a process for purifying manganese by electrolysis has stimulated interest in manganese alloys. While recent publications have shown some alloys of manganese and copper to possess rather unusual properties, none have included information on tensile properties, which have an important bearing on the usefulness of the alloys. Manganese-copper alloys can be heat-treated, since the single phases that exist at high temperatures may be retained by quenching. According to Persson,1 when quenched alloys containing from about 30 to nearly i00 per cent manganese are reheated, alpha manganese is precipitated (Fig. I). Calculations based on Persson's X-ray data indicate that this decomposi¬tion is accompanied by a change in volume of as much as S per cent. The reason that this large volume change has not been noted probably is the slow rate at which equilibrium is reached by these alloys. In an investigation on hardening by cold-work and heat-treatment, Dean and Anderson3 found that quenched alloys increase in hardness with manganese content and that high-manganese alloys harden very slowly with cold-work, while high-copper alloys harden much more rapidly. Heat-treatment has little effect on manganese-copper alloys containing less than 40 per cent Mn, and affects those alloys containing more than 40 per cent in accordance with their manganese content and heat-treating temperature. Dean and Anderson4 also found that cold-work increased electrical resistance of alloys containing from 50 to 80 per cent Mn, and that heat-treatment of alloys containing from 40 to 96 per cent Mn altered the electrical resistance considerably. Dean, Anderson and Potters have shown that the high vibration damping capacity that characterizes manganese-copper alloys containing 40 to g0 per cent Mn. is affected by cold-work and heat-treatments. Highest vibration damping capacity at low stresses was obtained by heating for 2 hr. at 450°C. (842°F.) after quenching from solution temperatures. Preparation of Alloys.-The alloys for these tests were melted in a 17-lb. basic-lined high-frequency induction furnace using electrolytic manganese, grade A ingot copper and a 70-30 Cu-Mn master alloy (69.80 per cent Cu, 0.12 Fe, 0.04 Si, 0.006 S, 0.07 C, balance Mn). The manganese was heated slowly to expel excess dissolved gases and melted before the addition of copper. No fluxes or covers were used. The melts were cast in tapered iron molds and the ingots were reduced go per cent when forged to ½ in. rounds. These rods were given 2-hr. solution treatments at temperatures that depended upon the composition (Table I). Tensile Tests.-The tensile specimens, 0.313-in. diameter (1.25-in. gauge length), which were enclosed in evacuated Pyrex

Jan 1, 1942

By Duncan MacVichie

THE iron fields described here are located in the Iron Springs and Pinto Mining districts, Iron County, Utah. This region is in southwestern Utah, about 260 miles south from Salt Lake City, and is reached by the Los Angeles & Salt Lake railroad of the Union Pacific system. The iron fields lie at an elevation of 5500 to 7500 ft. above sea level, and are essentially desert in character. They are covered with a light growth of sage brush, piñon pine, and scattered cedar. Weather conditions are unusually favorable for all-year mining operations, the winters being mild with little or no snow; and the summers not excessively hot, the temperature rarely rising to 100° during the day, while the nights are invariably cool. The iron-ore bearing area extends from the Iron Springs district to the Iron Mountain mining district, being approximately 25 miles long in a northeast-southwest direction, and from 1 to 3 miles wide in a northwest-southeast direction. In the Iron Springs and Pinto mining districts, the ore occurs at various points around three sides of Granite Mountain and Iron Mountain. This is readily understood by reference to Figs. 1-4. These mountains are composed of andesite, which has been forced up through the surrounding sedimentary formation, in the form of laccoliths. An extensive report on the geology of these districts was made by Leith and Harder,1 who state: The three dominating geological features of the district are three large andesite laccoliths which constitute the Three Peaks, Granite Mountain, and Iron Mountain; lying in a northeast-southwest line across the area in question. Three unconformable sedimentary series, aggregating 4000 ft. in thickness, outcrop in successive rings around these laccoliths, dipping outward asymmetrically, very steeply at the contact, less steeply further away. Still farther from the laccoliths, lava-flows 2000 ft. thick rest in nearly horizontal attitudes on the tilted sedimentary rocks. These general relations are modified by faulting. All of the rock formations of the district are more or less covered on the middle and lower slopes by unconsolidated and partly consolidated erosion debris, both aqueous and subaerial, which spreads out on the lower ground to make the deserts.

Jan 7, 1925

By John T. Crawford

Much has been written of late regarding the flotation of coal as a means of reclaiming the valuable portion of the fines encountered in nearly all methods of coal preparation. Whether the process be wet or dry, whether the dust be sent through the entire process or removed prior to the cleaning by some such method as screening or aspiration, one of the final products consists of a considerable proportion of — 48-mesh material. The percentage of this —48-mesh material depends upon the mining method, transportation, storage, and method of preparation. The tonnage of this dust material ranges from 1 to 10 per cent of the total output of the cleaning plants. Four methods of disposal are available for this coal: 1. Disposal with the refuse from the plant. 2. Addition, after being reclaimed from the wash water, or dust collectors, without cleaning to the larger sizes. 3. Separate disposal as a pulverized fuel. 4. Cleaning so that addition to the larger sizes benefits the product as a whole. It is also true that flotation in one form or another is the only known way to effectively clean this material. While some processes do a reasonable cleaning job down to and including +l00 mesh, by far the greater majority stop at or short of the + 48-mesh size. Much of the literature on coal flotation passes by the fred pulp density and size by merely stating that the feed varies from 20 to 30 per cent solids and that the size range is from — 1/4 in. or — 1/8 in. to 0. Small wonder then that some operators with entirely different conditions, and not knowing the machine capacity, throw up their hands in despair when flotation is mentioned. Too much parallel is drawn between flotation methods as applied to ores and as applied to coal, to the detriment of the latter. In the flotation of metalliferous ores the feed pulp density ranges from 20 to 30 per cent solids, depending upon the amount of mineral to be floated and upon the size analysis. Thus where 2 to 5 per cent of the

Jan 1, 1936

By John T. Crawford

Much has been written of late regarding the flotation of coal as a means of reclaiming the valuable portion of the fines encountered in nearly all methods of coal preparation. Whether the process be wet or dry, whether the dust be sent through the entire process or removed prior to the cleaning by some such method as screening or aspiration, one of the final products consists of a considerable proportion of — 48-mesh material. The percentage of this —48-mesh material depends upon the mining method, transportation, storage, and method of preparation. The tonnage of this dust material ranges from 1 to 10 per cent of the total output of the cleaning plants. Four methods of disposal are available for this coal: 1. Disposal with the refuse from the plant. 2. Addition, after being reclaimed from the wash water, or dust collectors, without cleaning to the larger sizes. 3. Separate disposal as a pulverized fuel. 4. Cleaning so that addition to the larger sizes benefits the product as a whole. It is also true that flotation in one form or another is the only known way to effectively clean this material. While some processes do a reasonable cleaning job down to and including +l00 mesh, by far the greater majority stop at or short of the + 48-mesh size. Much of the literature on coal flotation passes by the fred pulp density and size by merely stating that the feed varies from 20 to 30 per cent solids and that the size range is from — 1/4 in. or — 1/8 in. to 0. Small wonder then that some operators with entirely different conditions, and not knowing the machine capacity, throw up their hands in despair when flotation is mentioned. Too much parallel is drawn between flotation methods as applied to ores and as applied to coal, to the detriment of the latter. In the flotation of metalliferous ores the feed pulp density ranges from 20 to 30 per cent solids, depending upon the amount of mineral to be floated and upon the size analysis. Thus where 2 to 5 per cent of the

Jan 1, 1936

By A. W. Gauger

Fox perhaps one hundred years scientists have been engaged in attempts at devising a satisfactory method of classification of coal. During this time many charts, tables and graphs have been proposed, some of which have had considerable merit, but no one system has been found to be applicable to all ranks of coal, nor has any one system received general acceptance. In many of the proposals, water eliminated between room temperature and 105° C. has been regarded as extraneous matter and calculations have been made to the air-dry or water-free basis. Such methods of. calculation do not lend themselves to satisfactory grouping of the high-moisture coals.1,2 A consideration not only of the properties of the high-moisture coals and their behavior on drying but of the generally accepted ideas of the coalification process and the role of water in this process indicates that water is an essential constituent of all coals and therefore should not be neglected. For example, in such low-rank coals as the lignites of the Northern Great Plains' deposits the inherent moisture of the lignite as mined plays a very important part in the physical properties thereof. Freshly mined lignite contains upwards of 30 per cent water and is extremely tough and resistant to shock. Upon exposure to the atmosphere, the lump loses part of its moisture and checks and splits, leaving a friable and broken up residue. So far as we have been able to determine, water is the only thing lost in this process and we are forced to the conclusion that moisture plays an extremely important part in the structural properties of the original lignite. With reference to the coalification process, Mack and Hulett3 pointed out in 1917 the important part that water played therein. They observed that water cannot be removed from peat or coal by pressure alone, but only as the result of chemical reaction, and suggested that peat in its early stages may be largely a hydrosol. Slow chemical changes occur over a long period of time until finally the mass becomes more largely a hydrogel. These views are substantiated to some extent by the experi-

Jan 1, 1932

By Duncan MacVichie

The iron fields described here are located in the Iron Springs and Pinto mining districts, Iron County, Utah. This region is in southwestern Utah, about 260 miles south from Salt Lake City, and is reached by the Los Angeles & Salt Lake railroad of the Union Pacific system. The iron fields lie at an elevation of 5500 to 7500 ft. above sea level, and are essentially desert in character. They are covered with a light growth of sage brush, piñon pine, and scattered cedar. Weather conditions are unusually favorable for all-year mining operations, the winters being mild with little or no snow; and the summers not excessively hot, the temperature rarely rising to 100 during the day, while the nights are invariably cool. The iron-ore bearing area extends from the Iron Springs district to the Iron Mountain mining district, being approximately 25 miles long in a northeast-southwest direction, and from 1 to 3 miles wide in a northwest-southeast direction. In the Iron Springs and Pinto mining districts, the ore occurs at various points around three sides of Granite Mountain and Iron Mountain. This is readily understood by reference to Figs. 1-4. These mountains are composed of andesite, which has been forced up through the surrounding sedimentary formation, in the form of laccoliths. An extensive report on the geology of these districts was made by Leith and Harder,' who state: The three dominating geological features of the district are three large andesite laccoliths which constitute the Three Peaks, Granite Mountain, and Iron Mountain; lying in a northeast-southwest line across the area in question. Three unconformable sedimentary series, aggregating 4000 ft. in thickness, outcrop in successive rings around these laccoliths, dipping outward asymmetrically, very steeply at the contact, less steeply farther away. Still farther from the laccoliths, lava-flows 2000 ft. thick rest in nearly horizontal attitudes on the tilted sedimentary rocks. These general relations are modified by faulting. All of the rock formations of the district are more or less covered on the middle and lower slopes by unconsolidated and partly consolidated erosion debris, both aqueous and subaerial, which spreads out on the lower ground to make the deserts.

Jan 1, 1927

By Robert L. Hoss

The application of Muskat's differential equations for predicting the performance of a solution gas-drive reservoir to the Fullerton field indicates that a recovery may be expected of 14,030 bbl per acre under primary depletion, and 15,910 and I7,190 bbl per acre, respectively, under the two pressure-maintenance programs analyzed. In this analysis it is assumed that fluid properties are the same throughout the reservoir, that the core data used are typical of the Clear Fork limestone in the locality, and that injected gas is completely diffused through the pay zones. The economic study of the three recovery programs considered indicates that the one in which 60 pct of the produced gas is returned to the formation is the most profitable. Introduction The purpose of this paper is to consider the effect of pressure maintenance by gas injection on the ultimate recovery of oil from a solution gas-drive reservoir. This prediction of reservoir behavior is the result of calculations based on the equations presented by M. Muskat in the Journal of Applied Physics, March 1945. Reservoir The reservoir analyzed is the Fullerton field in Andrews County, West Texas. It is situated on a broad anticlinal structure with approximately 330 ft of closure, and extends approximately eight miles north and south and five miles east and west. The areal extent is taken as 16,642 acres. The producing horizon is the Lower Clear Fork limestone of Permian age, occurring at depths from 6650 to 7350 ft. It is divided into four zones. For the purposes of this study, the fluid characteristics in all zones are assumed to be the same. Therefore an equivalent zone is assumed of thickness equal to the sum of the thicknesses of the four zones, or an average of 216 ft. The reservoir contains 3,586,991 acre feet of producing limestone, with an initial volume of stock tank oil in place of 918,-403,100 bbl. The average connate water saturation is 24.0 pct. The permeability ranges from 6.7 md. to 12.6 md., and the porosity ranges from 7.7 pct to 11.4 pct, except for occasional cavernous streaks. Based on these values, the limestone may be considered intergranu1ar.l Production histories and material-balance studies have indicated that the driving mechanism is solution gas. Water levels have been established. Theory It is possible to express mathematically the change in residual oil saturation with pressure decline in a solution gas-drive reservoir as being equal to the change in the physical properties of the fluids present in the reservoir as this pressure decline occurs. Essentially these equations, in differential form as presented by M. Muskat,2 express quantitatively the instantaneous net effect

Jan 1, 1948