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By W. C. Ellis

Growth directions of tin, zinc, and cadmiun whisker crystals grown spontaneously fi-om the solid are summarized. In tin the edge and diagonal directions of the unit cell are jound with the exception oj- the [110] diagonal. In cadmiurn and zinc the usual dip-ections are a or a + c. The c direction has not been ohserwed. The gvouth directions from the solid are for the most part the same as those found for vapor-grozun crystals and are the ohserz:ed glide directions in plastic j-lou. Whisker crystals of these elements grown from the solid are not twinned. Specular lateral reflections are associated with planes of snall crystallographic indices. WHISKER crystals of tin, zinc, or cadmium grow spontaneously at room temperature in periods from months to years from thin electroplates and other prepared films of the respective metals.''2 It has been established that these crystals are single, but the question of twinning, such as occurs in whisker crystals of silicon,3'4 has not been resolved. Studies of morphology have been restricted to determinations of growth directions.5-' Whisker crystals are both straight and kinked. A few studies have been made on kinked whiskers including measurements of kink anglesa and determinations of growth directions,' but unfortunately not both on the same crystals. The kink angles, for the most part, for each species are grouped closely about a few unique values, but these values are not always those between observed growth directions in a single crystal. To supplement existing data, the growth directions, identification of lateral features, and presence or absence of twinning were determined with a Weissenberg goniometer by a method described elsewhereg on eight whisker crystals of tin, five of zinc, and five of cadmium. One kinked cadmium whisker was examined in detail. The specimens were needlelike, a few microns in cross section, and of the order of a millimeter in length. They were removed from electroplated substrates on laboratory specimens and commercial equipment after several years of growth as described in Table I. Since the specimens were less than 10 p in cross section they were ideally strong with no attendant risk of plastic deformation or damage in handling. Only deformation twinning has been reported for these elements. Therefore, twinning probably should not be expected in whisker crystals of these metals, particularly a twin plane containing the growth direction. A twin plane oriented in this direction was the one sought in this study. No examination was made for twinning at the boundary between kink segments except for one cadmium crystal. Well-defined reflections occur as a whisker crystal of tin, zinc, or cadmium is rotated about its growth direction when illuminated by a beam of light Although these reflections had been noted in earlier investigations, no study of them was made, probably because the earlier studies had disclosed also that

Jan 1, 1967

By H. l. Burghoff, J. S. Porter

This paper presents the results of an investigation of the effect of cold-working and annealing treatments upon the occurrence of preferred orientation in annealed brass wire. The subject has received less consideration than has the same phenomenon in annealed brass sheet or strip, and perhaps very properly so in view of the obvious and undesired results obtained in the forming or drawing of strip having preferred orientation, which results are in contrast with the lack of any spectacular visual evidence in wire. The factors of cold-working and annealing that control preferredness in strip are naturally expected to function similarly in wire. Indeed, one might expect the condition to be commoner in annealed wire, because the severity of the cold-working between anneals in commercial Practice is usually much greater for wire than for strip. For example, a wire that is to be finished in the annealed condition on a diameter of 0.040 in. is commonly subjected to a final reduction of 90 per cent between the last two anneals, the large reduction being accomplished in the successive drafts of a multiple-die machine. Wire for rivets, for instance, on 0.125-in. diameter, although given a slight reduction of about Io per cent after the final anneal, may have been given a prior reduction of 75 to 80 per cent. Barrettl states the fiber axis of annealed 70-30 brass wire to be [111], with some indication of [IOO] as a secondary fiber axis. Croft and Sachs2 have reported briefly on some differences in brass wire with random and with preferred orientations. They showed statistical plots of the twin-band angles with respect to the wire axis or direction of drawing as observed on an axial plane. They also pointed out that the resistance of the wire to corrosion-cracking when externally stressed and exposed to a mercurous nitrate solution decreased as the degree of the preferred orientation increased. Material and PRocedure All the wire for the investigation was processed from one portion as cut for extrusion from a cast billet of the following analysis: 70.13 per cent copper; 0.01 lead; 0.01 iron; 0.02, nickel; 29.83 zinc (by difference). The billet section, 8 in, in diameter, was extruded hot to 3/4-in. diameter, after which it was processed by alternate cold-drawing and annealing treatments as indicated in Fig. I. The earliest anneals in process were at about 1100°F. and the next to the last reductions by drawing were 58 per cent. The diameter of the finally annealed wire was 0.132 in. Semifinal anneals were at 800°F., 950°F. and 1100°F. and reductions of 47.5, 74, 83.5 and 89.5 per cent were employed in drawing to 0.132 in. The final anneals were at 87s°F., 1050°F. and 1250°F. and were

Jan 1, 1944

By H. l. Burghoff, J. S. Porter

This paper presents the results of an investigation of the effect of cold-working and annealing treatments upon the occurrence of preferred orientation in annealed brass wire. The subject has received less consideration than has the same phenomenon in annealed brass sheet or strip, and perhaps very properly so in view of the obvious and undesired results obtained in the forming or drawing of strip having preferred orientation, which results are in contrast with the lack of any spectacular visual evidence in wire. The factors of cold-working and annealing that control preferredness in strip are naturally expected to function similarly in wire. Indeed, one might expect the condition to be commoner in annealed wire, because the severity of the cold-working between anneals in commercial Practice is usually much greater for wire than for strip. For example, a wire that is to be finished in the annealed condition on a diameter of 0.040 in. is commonly subjected to a final reduction of 90 per cent between the last two anneals, the large reduction being accomplished in the successive drafts of a multiple-die machine. Wire for rivets, for instance, on 0.125-in. diameter, although given a slight reduction of about Io per cent after the final anneal, may have been given a prior reduction of 75 to 80 per cent. Barrettl states the fiber axis of annealed 70-30 brass wire to be [111], with some indication of [IOO] as a secondary fiber axis. Croft and Sachs2 have reported briefly on some differences in brass wire with random and with preferred orientations. They showed statistical plots of the twin-band angles with respect to the wire axis or direction of drawing as observed on an axial plane. They also pointed out that the resistance of the wire to corrosion-cracking when externally stressed and exposed to a mercurous nitrate solution decreased as the degree of the preferred orientation increased. Material and PRocedure All the wire for the investigation was processed from one portion as cut for extrusion from a cast billet of the following analysis: 70.13 per cent copper; 0.01 lead; 0.01 iron; 0.02, nickel; 29.83 zinc (by difference). The billet section, 8 in, in diameter, was extruded hot to 3/4-in. diameter, after which it was processed by alternate cold-drawing and annealing treatments as indicated in Fig. I. The earliest anneals in process were at about 1100°F. and the next to the last reductions by drawing were 58 per cent. The diameter of the finally annealed wire was 0.132 in. Semifinal anneals were at 800°F., 950°F. and 1100°F. and reductions of 47.5, 74, 83.5 and 89.5 per cent were employed in drawing to 0.132 in. The final anneals were at 87s°F., 1050°F. and 1250°F. and were

Jan 1, 1944

By Stuart E. Buckley, C. R. Hocott

The viscosity of the oil in the reservoir is one of the properties that influence its movement through the sand to producing wells. Measurements of viscosity, therefore, are pertinent to problems associated with well behavior and with the estimation of recoveries, and afford an indirect means for partial evaluation of various methods of controlling reservoir behavior. The effect of dissolved gases on the viscosity of crude oil has been determined,ls2 but no data have been published on the viscosity of representative samples of reservoir oils. This paper describes a simple instrument that has been used to determine the viscosities of a number of subsurface oil samples at the temperatures and pressures existing in the reservoirs, and presents the results of the determinations for typical fields. Construction oF the Apparatus The principal requirements of any instrument used for the examination of subsurface samples are that it be strong and simple both in design and in method of operation. Accuracy beyond that of the degree of reproducibility of subsurface Sam-~les from various wells in a reservoir or exceeding that of the common measure-merits of reservoir temperatures and Pressures is not required. Because of the expense of procuring subsurface samples, it is necessary also that the instrument operate on a relatively small fraction of a sample, leaving the remainder for other tests, and that there be few or no failures of the equipment to cause undue delay or loss of a sample. After preliminary experiments with a falling bullet, the results of which were not satisfactory, a simple viscosimeter was built of the rolling ball type first proposed by Flowers3 and later used by several investiga-tor. 5.8 The apparatus consists essentially of a removable, accurately bored cylindrical barrel of 1/4-in. nominal internal diameter, 8 in. long, in which a closely fitting steel ball rolls through the oil with the barrel inclined at a definite angle. The ball makes contact at one end of the barrel with ail insulated electrode, closing an electrical circuit, which actuates a buzzer. The meas-urements consist essentially in determining the time required for the ball to travel the length of the barrel. The details of the construction are shown in Fig. I. The barrel in which the ball rolls was made from a section of 25-caliber blank rifle barrel, specially bored to an exact uniform diameter and polished. The barrel slides snugly into a hole bored in a solid stainless-steel cylinder, an upper external shoulder of the barrel compressing a small spring, and is held in place by a hollow nut. The spring prevents the barrel from seating against the bottom of the bored hole in the cylinder, while narrow external longitudinal slots in the barrel permit fluid to flow around it and through the bottom. The upper part of the recess in the steel cylinder is enlarged to form a tapered chamber, which acts as a reservoir for the oil and affords space for agitation to ensure

Jan 1, 1941

By C. R. Hocott, Stuart E. Buckley

The viscosity of the oil in the reservoir is one of the properties that influence its movement through the sand to producing wells. Measurements of viscosity, therefore, are pertinent to problems associated with well behavior and with the estimation of recoveries, and afford an indirect means for partial evaluation of various methods of controlling reservoir behavior. The effect of dissolved gases on the viscosity of crude oil has been determined,ls2 but no data have been published on the viscosity of representative samples of reservoir oils. This paper describes a simple instrument that has been used to determine the viscosities of a number of subsurface oil samples at the temperatures and pressures existing in the reservoirs, and presents the results of the determinations for typical fields. Construction oF the Apparatus The principal requirements of any instrument used for the examination of subsurface samples are that it be strong and simple both in design and in method of operation. Accuracy beyond that of the degree of reproducibility of subsurface Sam-~les from various wells in a reservoir or exceeding that of the common measure-merits of reservoir temperatures and Pressures is not required. Because of the expense of procuring subsurface samples, it is necessary also that the instrument operate on a relatively small fraction of a sample, leaving the remainder for other tests, and that there be few or no failures of the equipment to cause undue delay or loss of a sample. After preliminary experiments with a falling bullet, the results of which were not satisfactory, a simple viscosimeter was built of the rolling ball type first proposed by Flowers3 and later used by several investiga-tor. 5.8 The apparatus consists essentially of a removable, accurately bored cylindrical barrel of 1/4-in. nominal internal diameter, 8 in. long, in which a closely fitting steel ball rolls through the oil with the barrel inclined at a definite angle. The ball makes contact at one end of the barrel with ail insulated electrode, closing an electrical circuit, which actuates a buzzer. The meas-urements consist essentially in determining the time required for the ball to travel the length of the barrel. The details of the construction are shown in Fig. I. The barrel in which the ball rolls was made from a section of 25-caliber blank rifle barrel, specially bored to an exact uniform diameter and polished. The barrel slides snugly into a hole bored in a solid stainless-steel cylinder, an upper external shoulder of the barrel compressing a small spring, and is held in place by a hollow nut. The spring prevents the barrel from seating against the bottom of the bored hole in the cylinder, while narrow external longitudinal slots in the barrel permit fluid to flow around it and through the bottom. The upper part of the recess in the steel cylinder is enlarged to form a tapered chamber, which acts as a reservoir for the oil and affords space for agitation to ensure

Jan 1, 1941

In traversing lately the Sierra Madre, west of Sail Pedro and Guanacevi, I estimated the topographic summit at several points, by aneroid barometer, at about 8,500 ft. Mr. Weed's measurements, 40 miles further north, are from 9,000 to 9,500 ft., and indicate the correctness of the impression I obtained at the time, namely, that the greatest movement in the elevation of the Sierra was between Guanacevi and Guadaloupe y Calvo. This is suggested also by the course of the headwaters of the Rio Conchas and of the Nazas, and by the relative corrasion of the branches of the two streams. Mr. Weed's statements as to the unevenness and great relief of the andesite floor underlying the later dacites and rhyolites are very interesting, and lead me to add that the floor of the andesite breccias and flows is uncovered for several square miles east of Guanacevi. This floor is of reddish, bluish and gray shales, lying horizontal or dipping slightly east. Their age is unknown; but from the interbedded occurrence of copper sulphides, I took it to be Triassic,

Jan 1, 1903

By Eric R. Morgan, J. C. Shyne

STRAIN aging is the name given to time-dependent changes which occur in the properties of cold-worked metals and alloys during storage. These changes are best observed through a study of mechanical properties, as illustrated in Fig. I for low-carbon steel. The effects of strain aging are usually regarded as being detrimental, particularly in deep-drawing steels. For example, an increase in yield strength and loss in ductility lead to buckling and tearing during drawing. At the same time the return of the yield point results in the formation of Luders bands or stretcher strains during the pressing operation. As a result of these effects many attempts have been made to eliminate strain aging from low-carbon steel. The problem still remains, however, because all known methods of preventing strain aging result in a more costly steel. The present work is an assessment of the situation in terms of theoretical, practical, and economic factors and suggests a new solution to the problem. Previous Work According to the Cottrell theory,' strain aging in a-iron may be regarded as the migration of interstitial atoms to free dislocations and the anchoring of dislocations by the resulting atmospheres. It may be concluded that the important factors which will govern the degree of strain aging are the diffusivity, the effective amount of interstitial element in solution, and the time of aging. The diffusivities and effective amounts of carbon and nitrogen in solution in low-carbon rimming steel are such that significant aging occurs in a few hours' storage at room temperature. Strain aging in deep-drawing steels cannot be controlled by controlling the time of aging because in commercial practice this is determined by economic factors concerned with inventories and may be several weeks. The diffusivity of nitrogen is twice that of carbon at room temperature but the diffusivities can be controlled by controlling the storage temperature. The retardation produced by only a 25 °C drop in temperature is significant but the cold storage of large steel inventories is an impractical solution to Table I. Analysis of Base Materials Alloy Pet C Yet 0 Pet N Vac 0.0037 0.052 0.0003 H 0.0044 0.013 0.0008 C 0.06 0.0014 0.0001 the problem. By far the most simple and effective ways to control strain aging are through control of the amount of carbon and nitrogen in solution. This may be effected through alloying, controlled precipitation, or by eliminating the carbon and nitrogen. Consider first the control of the amount of carbon in solution. The simplest approach would be alloy -ing in which strong carbide-forming elements are added. Examples of this approach are the additions of titanium' and niobium9 0 steel. These elements also combine with nitrogen and oxygen and when added in sufficient quantity result in a completely killed and non-aging steel. They are, however, impractical additions because they result in a costly steel. Carbon and nitrogen are often removed from iron on a laboratory scale by annealing in wet hydrogen, but because of cost this process has never been adopted on a commercial scale. In practice the amount of carbon in solution is controlled by the rate of cooling from the annealing temperature (710°C or 1310°F). In commercial box

Jan 1, 1958

Henry Louis, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England (communica, tion to the Secretary): I have been much interested in Mr. Schmitz's description of the copper-ore bed in the Permian formation of Texas. He compares it with the Mansfeld Kupferschiefer; but it seems to me to present closer analogies with a small deposit on the same side of the Atlantic, in Nova Scotia, which I examined in 1877. I quote entirely from my fieldnotes, made then, and from specimens still in my possession. These copper-deposits are known in several places; but I examined them at the village of New Annan, on the banks of the French river. This district has been determined by Sir J. W. Dawson as being of Permian age, and this determination seems to have been confirmed as recently as 1891 by the operations of the Canadian Geological Survey. The following is the section, very imperfectly exposed in a few shallow levels, described in ascending order: Red sandstone, moderately fissile and markedly false-bedded. Lower nodule-bed, 1 inch to 6 inches thick, of fissile mica, ceous sandstone, containing obscure plant-remains converted into anthracite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite and iron pyrites. Very coarse grit or, in places, red sandstone; thickness and character variable. Upper nodule-bed, 6 inches to 2 feet thick exceptionally, generally about 10 inches. Soft, gray, friable shaly sandstone, with nodules of copper-ore. Red sandstone. All these strata lie flat, in places quite horizontal, in places dipping towards the river at 5° to 10°.

Jan 1, 1897

By Arnold E. Lamm

The author addressed a keynote session for all divisions at last October's SME Fall Meeting in Phoenix, Ariz. Discussing the competition from gas, oil, hydroelectric and atomic energy, he said that the market can only be wrested from them "by endeavoring to lower costs far beyond anything we thought possible a few years ago." He saw the rate of return for the industry as "grossly inadequate." Looking ahead, Mr. Lamm saw only a few extremely large generating plants being built. "Purchase of coal for such plants," he said, "will probably be confined to a single source on long-term contracts. Only those coal companies who are able to locate huge reserves, close to adequate cooling water, capable of being mined and transported at the lowest cost in relation to quality, will be able to compete. . . While the market for coal will be very large in terms of tons, it will be most selective and confined to a few transactions of very great magnitude. "Coal offers a proven and tried method of producing energy. The available strippable reserves of Western coal and mineable underground reserves offer the cheapest source of energy available. History will attest that coal has been a steady and stable source of energy. Up until recently, the energy market of the West has had to depend on natural gas which product has had a long and steady price escalation. Statistics show that, where coal is available, the price of gas is quite stable, but where gas is the only available fuel, it has traditionally followed a steady and upward price trend.

Jan 11, 1965

By John Mullen

Impingers TWO types of midget impinger apparatus are used at Climax. The Mine Safety Appliances Company's midget impinger (MSA) and the Climax Molybdenum Company's midget impinger (CMC) (Fig. I). The Leiman Brother's No. 25, positive displacement pump is used in the CMC impinger instead of the four-cylinder radial pump that is used in the MSA impinger. With the MSA apparatus it is possible to obtain the proper vacuum by adjusting the needle valve on the vacuum chamber, while with the CMC impinger the proper vacuum is obtained by varying the rate at which the pump is cranked. The Leiman Brother's No. 25 pump is built to displace 0.1 cu. ft. of air per min. when operated at 145 r.p.m. In the CMC impinger this pump is so geared that the required crank speed is approximately 59 r.p.m. Both types of impinger apparatus are equipped with a water gauge mounted on top of the case and they are calibrated and operated in reference to the gauge. The MSA impinger flasks and nozzles are used with both types. Calibrating Impingers A calibrated precision Sargent wet-test meter (Fig. 2) is used in calibrating the impinger apparatus. The apparatus is set up as for taking a sample in the field, except that the hose from the outlet side of the meter is attached to the impinger nozzle. One revolution of the large hand of the meter indicates 0.1 cu. ft. of air displaced. The impinger pump is cranked for one minute, therefore, at a rate that will cause the large hand of the meter to make one revolution. The gauge reading is noted, then the impinger is cranked at this rate for 10 min. and is checked for error. If the meter indicates that more or less than I cu. ft. of air has been displaced, the impinger must be cranked—ither slower or faster according to the error—for another 10 min. and again checked for error. This operation is repeated until the proper gauge reading for a sampling rate of 0.1 cu. ft. per min. has been determined. This gauge reading is used in all sampling operations until the impinger is again calibrated. An impinger is calibrated at least twice each week. MlCROPROJECTOR A Bausch and Lomb model B micro-projector is used (Fig. 3). It consists of a substantial metal base supporting the light source and a microscope. Illumination is provided by a Bausch and Lomb 4.5-amp. arc lamp with mechanical feed. A glass water cell filled with a heat-absorbing and color-filter solution is placed between the arc lamp and the microscope. Two types of solution have been found satisfactory— a 2 per cent solution of copper sulphate or a 2 per cent solution of picric acid and distilled water. This percentage may be varied to give the desired color to the light reflected upon the screen. Any standard microscope may be used. A Bausch and Lomb microscope with

Jan 1, 1946

By AIME AIME

Council may deal with any matter of general interest, for which joint action of two or more of its member societies would have been appropriate, if Council had not been established. Council may initiate and carry through projects of the general character defined in the By-Laws, for which the necessary financial provision has been made. Council may take up, and in its discretion act upon, any matter of general interest referred to it by any member society or by any other society, national, state or local, or by any branch of Government, or by any individual or group of individuals.

Jan 1, 1920

By H. l. Burghoff, J. S. Porter

THIS paper presents the results of an investigation of the effect of cold-working and annealing treatments upon the occurrence of preferred orientation in annealed brass wire. The subject has received less consideration than has the same phenomenon in annealed brass sheet or strip, and perhaps very properly so in view of the obvious and undesired results obtained in the forming or drawing of strip having preferred orientation, which results are in contrast with the lack of any spectacular visual evidence in wire. The factors of cold-working and annealing that control preferredness in strip are naturally expected to function similarly in wire. Indeed, one might expect the condition to be commoner in annealed wire, because the severity of the cold-working between anneals in commercial practice is usually much greater for wire than for strip. For example, a wire that is to be finished in the annealed condition on a diameter of 0.040 in. is commonly subjected to a final reduction of 96 per cent between the last two anneals, the large reduction being accomplished in the successive drafts of a multiple-die machine. Wire for rivets, for instance, on 0.125-in. diameter, although given a slight reduction of about 10 per cent after the final anneal, may have been given a prior reduction of 75 to 80 per cent. Barrett1 states the fiber axis of annealed 70-30 brass wire to be [111] with some indication of [100] as a secondary fiber axis. Croft and Sachs2 have reported briefly on some differences in brass wire with random and with preferred orientations. They showed statistical plots of the twin-band angles with respect to the wire axis or direction of drawing as observed on an axial plane. They also pointed out that the resistance of the wire to corrosion-cracking when externally stressed and exposed to a mercurous nitrate solution decreased as the degree of the preferred orientation increased. MATERIAL AND PROCEDURE All the wire for the investigation was processed from one. portion as cut for extrusion from a cast billet of the following analysis: 70.13 per cent copper; 0.01 lead; 0.01 iron; 0.02 nickel; 29.83 zinc (by difference). The billet section, 8 in. in diameter, was extruded hot to 3/4 -in. diameter, after which it was processed by alternate cold-drawing and annealing treatments as indicated in Fig. I. The earliest anneals in process were at about 1100°F. and the next to the last reductions by drawing were 58 per cent. The diameter of the finally annealed wire was 0.132 in. Semifinal anneals were at 800°F., 950°F. and 1100°F. and reductions of 47.5, 74, 83.5 and 89.5 per cent were employed in drawing to 0.132 in. The final anneals were at 875°F., 1050°F. and 1250°F. and were

Jan 1, 1944

By G. E. Burpee

A COMPREHENSIVE study of insoluble residues in the productive Permian limestone in the Hobbs and Eunice fields, Lea County, N. M., has been conducted by Shell Petroleum Corp. engineers {luring the past two years. This study was prompted by the belief that the stratigraphy of the producing formation might be worked out in detail and that some relationship might be established between the permeable oil, gas, and water zones and correlatable lithologic horizons within the productive formation. As a result of the study, correlations have been established which have proved of great value to both an orderly development and corrective program.

Jan 1, 1935

By Frank A. Herald

Generally in Table 1 the unit for presentation of data is a field. For our purposes a field is defined as the whole of a surface area wherein productive locations are continuous. Such unit commonly includes and surrounds nonproductive areas. Such unit commonly includes a great variety of geologic conditions-—several units of continuous productive reservoirs of distinctly different structure and of distinctly different stratigraphy. Therefore it is hoped that our authors will subdivide "field" so as to enable students to make analyses that may have scientific and /or commercial value. As to each space in the tabulation, it is either (I) not applicable, (2) the proper entry is not determinable, (3) the proper entry is determinable, but not determinable from data available to the author, (4) the proper entry is determinable by the author. In spaces not applicable, the author will please draw horizontal lines; in spaces where the proper entries are not determinable, the author will please insert x; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable but not determinable from data available to the author, the author will please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author he will, of course, make such entries. Generally, y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces, the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entries need not be hedged to such extent as in cases where the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use 2. For example, if the total production of a field is known to be between 1,800,000 and 1,850,000, the author may report 1,8xx,xxx; or if the production is between 1,850,000 and 1,900,000, the author may report 1,9xx,xxx. Where a numeral is immediately to the left of x or y, such numeral represents the nearest known number in that position. As to quantity of gas produced from many fields the question will arise as to whether the figures should include merely the gas marketed or should include also estimates of gas used in operations and gas wasted. Although rough approximations may be involved, our figures should represent as nearly as possible the total quantity of gas removed from the reservoir. Wile we have not provided a column for showing the thickness of the productive zone, generally the difference between average depth to bottoms of productive wells

Jan 1, 1935

By James Terry Duce

In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from circulars to authors, compiled by Mr. Frank A. Herald when he was Vice-chairman for Production of the Petroleum Division: Generally in Table 1 the unit for presentation of data is a field. For our purposes a field is defined as the whole of a surface area wherein productive locations are continuous. Such unit commonly includes and surrounds nonproductive areas. Such unit commonly includes a great variety of geologic conditions-—several units of continuous productive reservoirs of distinctly different structure and of distinctly dzerent stratigraphy. Therefore it is hoped that our authors will subdivide "field" so as to enable students to make analyses that may have scientific and/or commercial value. As to each space in the tabulation, it is either (1) not applicable, (2) the proper entry is not determinable, (3) the proper entry is determinable, but not determinable from data available to the author, (4) the proper entry is determinable by the author. In spaces not applicable, the author will please draw horizontal lines; in spaces where the proper entries are not determinable, the author will please insert x; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable but not determinable from data available to the author, the author will please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author he will, of course, make such entries. Generally, y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces, the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entries need not be hedged to such extent as in cases where the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use 2. For example, if the total production of a field is known to be between 1,800,000 and 1,850,000, the author may report l,8x,xxx; or if the production is between 1,850,000 and 1,900,000, the author may report 1,9xx,xxx. Where a numeral is immediately to the left of x or y, such numeral represents the nearest known number in that position. As to quantity of gas produced from many fields the question will arise as to whether the figures should include merely the gas marketed or should include also estimates of gas used in operations and gas wasted. Although rough approximations

Jan 1, 1937

Mark R. Lamb, Torres, Sonora, Mexico (communication to the Secretary*): I have read Mr. Merrill's paper with much interest, and cannot but accept his challenge as regards the cost of the clean-up at the Homestake mill. If I understand him correctly, the two men take the precipitates from the presses in about six hours, and do nothing towards refining them. If that is so, it would correspond to the work four men do here in about eight hours—that is, to clean the box and to place the precipitates in the driers. In order to make a fair comparison, the bullion in each case should be stated in ounces, since it is as diflicult to precipitate silver as gold, and our bullion is mostly silver. Bullion to the value of $50,000 is equivalent to a weight of about 2,500 oz. At our last clean-up eight standard bars, each 1,100 oz. in weight, were made, which equals a total weight of 8,800 oz'. Four men had the precipitates drying by 8 p.m. This plant, the Minas Prietas works of Charles Butters & Co., at Minas Prietas, has square-bottomed electrolytic vats, an arrangement which necessitates the handling of all the precipitates in buckets. The Butters plant at Virginia City, Nev., is equipped with conical vats, and probably could make a still better showing under similar conditions. Another point is that common labor only is required. (Ordinary laborer's wages at Minas Prietas are $0.70 gold.) I may say also that, except for the convenience of the refinery, the box could be cleaned monthly, instead of bi-monthly, at only a slight additional expense. The comparison, if made a few months ago, would have been much more in favor of the electrolytic process, as the tailings handled at that time contained a large quantity of copper, and the amount of zinc-dust required would have been enormous.

Jan 1, 1904

By M. G. Fowler

A GENERAL decline in copper production for most American producers occurred during the past year as a result of shortage in available labor. Few noteworthy technical developments have been reported; undoubtedly, many changes and improvements have been made but have not been reported because of lack of time. During the war years through 1944 the pressure for sustained high production has been of prime importance and during 1945, with slackening of production, many operators were faced with the problem of catching up on repairs and maintenance of plants, with inadequate labor supply. In hydrometallurgy there were some important developments that undoubtedly will be reported during 1946. Several operators in the Southwest have instituted experimental leaching programs to exploit low-grade oxidized and mixed ore bodies. The Bureau of Mines is conducting pilot-plant experimental work to determine the possibility of producing a satisfactory sponge iron at an attractive cost from deposits of iron ore and coal in Arizona. The sponge iron would be used for the production of cement cop¬per. The cell house of the Inspiration Consolidated Copper Co. at Inspiration,

Jan 1, 1946

By William P. Blake

As the storage of water for agricultural and mining purposes in the arid regions of the West is now receiving much attention by the people and their representatives, some facts coucerning the greatest pioneer enterprise for the purpose should appear on our records. I refer to the dam and reservoir at Walnut Grove, in Yavapai county, Arizona Territory, which was finished in the winter of 1887, and is known as the Walnut Grove Dam, It is not my intention at this time to give a full description of

Jan 1, 1889

By Cornelius F. Kelley

AT the Annual Meeting of the A.1.M.E. last February, Cornelius F. Kelley, chairman of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., was presented with the Charles F. Rand Memorial Medal for "conspicuous success as administrative head of great enter- prises engaged in the production of nonferrous metals at home and abroad; for inspiring leadership of an organization that has trained able engineers for service wherever ores are mined and metals are recovered; and for enhancing the prestige of metal mining in the financial and industrial world." Mr. Kelley's acceptance speech follows: I am not unmindful of the fact that the distinction is not to be considered a personal one, but that by the language of the citation itself it is rather a recognition of the service that has been performed by the many trained men of an industrial organization that in the arts of mining and metallurgy and in the fabrication of metal products has performed a distinct service to the industry and to mankind. In that spirit, the award is accepted, and on behalf of the organization I represent and myself, I thank you and assure you that the honor is deeply appreciated.

Jan 1, 1944

By Fuller, T. S.

THE number of rare or uncommon elements in use in the electrical industry nowadays is large, their application having come about through investigational work in industrial search laboratories and ' educational institutions. Such elements, together with those whose properties are more generally known, constitute Nature's gift to mankind and make possible the intricate devices which further our modern civilization. The' quality of raiaity is one of degree, and obviously depends largely on one's point of view. From the standpoint of quantity measured in the customary units of weight and volume, the amounts of many of the elements required are extremely small, but from the of view of performing some particular function or .other in a manner more satisfactory or cheaply than can be accomplished by any other sub- stance, the use in question may be extremely important.

Jan 1, 1928