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By A. C. Dittrick

THE Simon-Carves washer, originally known as the Baum jig washer, was first built in Europe about 1892. It was probably the first washer to use intermittent pressure of air on water in one part of the wash box to obtain water pulsations in another part. This type of washer was also the first to successfully clean various sizes in the same unit. Previous practice was to size closely before washing. Today there are several large firms abroad, and a few in the United States, that are constructing the Baum type washer. The design of all is practically the same, their differences being only in details. In 1928, the Hanna Coal Co. first gave consideration to the question of coal cleaning. It was believed at that time that by efficient removal of so-called noncombustibles appearing in the Pittsburgh No. 8 seam, certain markets that had been lost due to poor preparation might be recovered. Mechanical cleaning and mechanical loading were under consideration. This type of cleaning was considered the most practical means of removing impurities in the sizes below 4 in. It was decided to adopt mechanical cleaning and develop a system of mechanical loading that would be successful on No. 8 coal.

Jan 1, 1935

By L. E. Porter

El Segundo field is about 14 miles southwest of the central portion of the city of Los Angeles, immediately adjacent to the town of El Segundo and the Standard Oil Company's El Segundo refinery site. The field is served and bisected by several major highways connecting the beach cities on the west side of the Los Angeles Basin. The exact location of the field and its position with respect to other producing areas is shown on the map covering this portion of the Basin (Fig. I). The Republic Petroleum Co. discovered the first commercial production in the area when it completed its El Segundo No. 1 (sec. 18, T. 3 S. R. 14 W.) at a depth of 7402 ft. on Aug. 24, 1935, flowing at the rate of about 400 bbl. per day, 28" gravity oil. The producing horizon in this well consists of about 72 ft. of conglomerate and schist conglomerate situated below the nodular shale (Miocene). The true (or solid) schist (Franciscan) was encountered and penetrated some 20 ft. in the bottom of the hole. This paper gives a report on the history of development and oil production to date, and also submits the writer's interpretation of structural conditions as determined from such development. The limited development, together with the complex and variable nature of the producing horizon, makes any interpretation of the structure at present only tentative, and any forecast for a given well extremely hazardous. History of Oil and Gas Production The El Segundo field has produced approximately 1,920,000 bbl. of oil. It has 27 producing wells and 14 drilling wells or locations. The present daily rate of production is about 13,400 bbl. The production history of the field to date is shown in Table 1. The principal companies operating or owning leases in this field are: Caminol Company, Geo. F. Getty, Inc., Ohio Oil Co., Republic Petroleum Co., Pacific Western Oil Corporation, Royalty Service Corporation, Richfield Oil Corporation, Standard Oil Company of California, The Texas Company, Union Oil Company.

Jan 1, 1938

By Samuel S. Wyer

The art of natural-gas compressing is now over 25 years old, and has grown at practically the same rate as the increase in domestic natural-gas consumers. There are now over 200 natural-gas compressing stations in North America, aggregating more than 320,000 hp. of compressor capacity and representing a property value of more than $22,000,000, and compressing more than 85 per cent. of all the gas used. The age and magnitude of the art make it evident that the use of gas compressors is a recognized integral part and universal custom of the natural-gas business. The public also is not without its rights and vital interests in this problem. Approximately 1,700,000 domestic natural-gas consumers in North America are dependent upon gas compressors for their natural-gas service. That is, if the use of compressors were to be prohibited, the majority of these consumers would be unable to secure adequate natural-gas service. Each consumer represents between four and five persons, and it therefore follows that the comfort and well-being—as far as natural-gas service is concerned—of at least 8,000,000 persons would be affected if the use of natural-gas compressors should be prohibited. These 1,700,000 consumers have invested, in services, house piping, fixtures, and appliances, an average of about $90 each, or an aggregate of $153,000,000, which is much more than the companies' investment in gas compressors. Furthermore, in all cases where the rate paid by the consumers is fair to the gas company—considering the value of the service rendered by the gas company—the consumers are entitled to continued service and protection of the investment they have made on the faith that the gas service would be continued in the future. Since "Customs adopted and acquiesced in, if not in conflict with federal or State legislation, have the force of positive law,"l and ('Courts will take notice of whatever ought to be generally known withxn the limits of their jurisdiction,"2 there ought to be no question as to the un-

Jan 1, 1916

By T. Chen

One of the limitations of the 3-dimensional Lerchs-Grossmann pit optimisation algorithm has been the difficulty in calculating an optimum pit with variable wall slopes. The difficulties have been related to establishing various wall slopes without changing the sizes of the blocks used in the normal computation, but still retaining an optimum solution.

Jan 1, 1977

By Frederick Laist

THE past year has witnessed no radical changes in methods for the reduction and refining of copper. The Carson litigation was finally brought to a close ant1 the copper smelter is again free to introduce charge into his reverberatory furnaces in whatever manner suits him best. This litigation naturally led to much experimentation with various methods of charging and with various types of bath. In some cases the charge was introduced more or less centrally on a relatively dry hearth and in other cases into a bath of greater or less depth. The results of these furnaces were meticulously compared with the results obtained in side-charger furnaces, and it was apparent that it made little, if any difference how a given furnace \\.as charged so long as care was taken that there was always something in the furnace for the flames to work on. So long as this requirement was complied with, consumption of fuel per ton of charge smelted and tonnage smelted per furnace day remained substantially the same regardless of the method of charging or the depth of bath employed. In some instances the center-charged deep-bath furnaces gave slightly better results than the side-charged particularly with respect to copper losses. The slags of the deep-bath furnaces are generally a little cleaner

Jan 1, 1930

By Murray Pezim

In the good old days of the folklore of the mining industry, grizzled prospectors obtained a few loose dollars from friends and neighbours then wandered off to eventually return with the great discovery which became the core of the new corporate empires. Alternatively, merchant banking barons obtained exclusive rights to just about anything of future value over hugh nation-size territories. Some of this probably still goes on, likely with about the same ineffectiveness and waste of effort and money as in the past. CURRENT CONCERNS IN MINING In today's difficult climate in the mining industry, for that matter in all industry, effectiveness is the vital consideration. Cost effectiveness -- more bang for the buck -- is especially important in such an area of high risk as mineral exploration. And there are other factors to consider. Since minerals are depleting resources, the mining inddustry is constantly confronted with the reality that those resources extracted today must be immediately replaced if a resource enterprise is to continue. And if growth is to be achieved, even more resources must be found to support future expansion. The current and immediately foreseeable climate internationally for the mining industry creates a special need and urgency for aggressive and successful exploration, certainly in Canada, if not also in the United States. Depressed world markets and prices have turned yesterday's economic reserves into today's waste, hopefully to be converted into economic ore again in some distant time. One way of replenishing reserves and maintaining a viable mining industry is to find and develop mines which are economic under short-term depressed price and market conditions. This probably means higher grades. A new copper discovery with the right combination of characteristics to be an attractive investment even at today's pices for copper would still merit development into production. Exploration is the only way to find such mines for the difficult short-term conditions. Another important consideration is that normally many years stretch from the first thought of conducting exploration to production -- in those rare instances where an economic discovery is made. If discoveries are not made today, then there will not be any projects to develop when business conditions are more attrative. This industry and the vast number of skilled professionals who are part of mining, are faced with two key problems that underlie the need for a junior exploration segment. One consideration is how to maintain exploration during those years, indeed eras, of recession and depression. We are in such a time now. Throughout the world, major companies have sharply cut back, if not eliminated completely, exploration expenditures other than what is vitally necessary and easily and inexpensively done at the known and producing deposits. And related to that consideration, even more important today than during happier times, is how to finance such necessary ongoing exploration if major companies and governments back away because of financial stringency. CANADIAN SUCCESS In Canada, such problems are being tackled with a success which is capturing worldwide attention. The ability of mineral explorers to obtain willing, eager, high-risk capital is achieving even more outstanding results than in the past. These results are reflected in the widespread continuing exploration ativity in Canada which even spreads into the United States, with some outstanding discovery successes. The most notable exploration success from junior mining activity is the discovery of the Hemlo gold camp in northwestern Ontario, a source of gold which promises to rank with the South

Jan 1, 1985

By L. D. Jaffe, M. R. Norton, J. H. Hollomon

IN the practical heat-treatment of steel the decomposition of austenite usually occurs during cooling rather than at constant temperature. Nevertheless, the course of this decomposition has generally been studied only isothermally. Isothermal studies are not only simpler experimentally, but have the great theoretical advantage that one of the variables, temperature, is constant. It is the purpose of this paper to outline the principles that govern the relations between isothermal and anisothermal? decomposition of austenite, to present and systematize the available experimental information, and to indicate the gaps in the existing knowledge. Some of the experimental information is the result of new work. § Most of it is derived from scattered data in the literature. Many of these data were obtained incidentally in the course of research on other subjects and their significance has not been pointed out and perhaps not understood. It is hoped that this paper will aid future planning of more extensive research on anisothermal decomposition. METHOD In order to study the relations between isothermal and anisothermal decomposition, it appears fruitful to view anisothermal decomposition as taking place at a series of constant temperatures1 (except for the martensite reaction, which does not occur isothermally to an appreciable extent). When the time the steel is at each temperature is finite, the over-all amount of the reaction is considered to be the sum of the amounts occurring at each of the successive temperatures. During continuous cooling or heating, the time the steel is at each temperature and the difference between successive temperatures can be considered to approach zero. The over-all amount of transformation will then be given by integration over the range of temperatures involved. This point of view is advantageous in that it considers anisothermal transformation to be a series of isothermal transformations. The problem thus becomes one of determining the effect of partial decomposition at any given temperature upon subsequent decomposition at another temperature. Single Anisothermal Reaction Consider a phase brought to a temperature at which it is unstable, held there until it has partially transformed, and then brought to another temperature at

Jan 1, 1946

By Audley H. Snow

The general drift of the discussion as to the relative merits of pressure- and exhaust-fans has resulted, if we may judge from the prevailing practice, largely in favor of the latter. The subject has been hitherto treated, however, with special reference to highly gaseous mines, the effect of the form of ventilation upon dust-explosions having been too little considered. Even in mines containing practically no gas, dust-explosions may occur; and if, as I believe, pressure-fans are to be preferred for their effect upon dust, it may be worth while to reopen the debate, and to challenge the advisability of exhaust-ventilation under certain conditions. There are several forms of colliery-ventilation, which may be described as follows: Plain or simple pressure-ventilation, in which the fan acts as a pressure-fan, and the movement of coal is unobstructed at the surface by doors or equivalent devices in drifts or shafts, the traveling and haulage. thus being in the return-current. Plain exhaust-ventilation, in which the fan acts as an exhaust-fan, the movement of coal being likewise unobstructed at the surface, and the traveling and haulage being in the intake.

Jan 1, 1910

By C. E. Birchenall

DaVIES and Richardson1 have measured composition changes for Mn1-Owith variation in the equilibrium partial pressure of oxygen at 1500°, 1575°, and 1650°C, where 6 is the deviation from the simple stoichiometric ratio. No trend in this relationship with temperature was observed, so these remarks apply to the whole temperature range. The experimental values and their spread are shown by the bounded straight-line segments in the figure. Davies and Richardson assume that the stoichiometric oxide shows Frenkel disorder, given by the equation Mn2+Mn2+ + Mn" [1] where Mn2+ is a normal lattice ion which moves into an interstitial site (Mni2+) leaving a vacancy (Mn,"). The superscript dashes indicate that there is an excess charge on the anions surrounding the vacancy. Schottky disorder, in which a perfect crystal acquires equal numbers of cation and anion (Ov") vacancies according to leads to equations of exactly the same form in the analysis below. In view of the neutron diffraction results of Roth,2 which shows extensive Frenkel disorder in Fe1-o, Eq. [I] seems more appropriate. The deviations from stoichiometric composition, MnO, result from the addition of oxygen according to In effect Davies and Richardson ignore the variation of Mn3+in constructing equilibrium constants. This approximation might not appear to be very serious if the excess positive charges are really free posi- tive holes (P+) and if the intrinsic conductivity is high as a result of the reaction where e- is a conducting electron. However, the calculations of Buessem and Butler3 indicate that the partition functions of the free charges make a large contribution to the equilibrium constant, and this approximation would not be a desirable one. Furthermore, Morin4 shows that the positive holes are probably localized in MnO and therefore are described better by the mass action principle than by a degenerate gas model. Davies and Richardson's considerations require that activity corrections be applied beyond a 6 value of about 0.005. It is proposed to show here that the dissociation pressure curve can be calculated reasonably well over the whole composition range studied without activity corrections by choosing appropriate equilibrium constants for reactions 1 and 2. As stoichiometric composition The mass action constant, Ks, for reaction [I.] and the equilibrium constant, K,, for reaction [2] are given by where the concentrations which do not change significantly have been absorbed into the constants. The brackets denote concentrations. The deviation from stoichometric composition is given by gardless of [Mni2 ]. Substituting Eq. [7] in [6]

Jan 1, 1961

By Louis V. Bender

AfteR investigating the work of coal-dust fired reverberatories of the Canadian Copper Co., at Copper Cliff, Ontario, the management of the Washoe Reduction Works decided to experiment with and ascertain the advantages of using coal dust as a fuel in their reverberatories. Consequently, during the month of June, 1914, reverberatory furnace No. 8 was changed in order to use powdered coal as a fuel. The results obtained by this method of firing are gratifying and show a decided saving in cost of smelting as compared to grate firing with lump coal. The furnace, as remodeled, is 124 ft. long by 21 ft. wide, and varies in height from 8 ft. 6 in. at the back end to 5 ft. 7 in. at the skimming end. The general construction of the furnace is similar to that of the other furnaces at this plant. There are no side doors to this furnace, as it was thought that with the present arrangement for feeding no "fettling" or "claying" would be required. The interior of the furnace can be inspected through the burner port holes, after shutting off the burners and giving a few seconds' time for the gases inside the furnace to clear away. The charging is done on either side of the furnace from longitudinal hoppers, extending a distance of 74 ft. from the back end of the furnace. Leading from the hoppers into the furnace are 6-in. pipes, spaced 191/4 in. apart, through which the charge is intermittently dropped. The charge is kept well above the slag line at all times; in this way the side walls are protected and no fettling is needed on this portion of the furnace. The remainder of the furnace requires fettling. After operating for three months, we found that the bricks were eaten into along each side wall from the skimming door back to the point where the charge had been dropped. The depth of this cutting away was 8 in. close to the front end and gradually tapered to zero at a distance of 50 ft., and was greatest on the side of the furnace having the larger flue connection. Hoppers will be put in for the entire length of furnace, from which fettling material will be dropped, to prevent this cutting. After the run of three months, the roof was in excellent condition. At the back of the furnace the bricks were not cut into at all; at 30 ft.

Jan 1, 1915

By William Y. Warren

Messrs. Thomas & Cross, having leased from the Akron Cement Company from twelve to fifteen acres of abandoned cement-tunnels and chambers, for the purpose of propagating mushrooms for the market, commenced operations about a year ago, and are now beginning to furnish mushrooms in quantities to the local markets of Buffalo and Rochester. The quarries, or, more properly, the mines, of the Cement Company are located at Akron, Erie County, PIT. Y. The cement-rock occurs in a stratum about 71/2 to 8 feet in thickness, which is overlain by from 1.5 to 25 feet of limestone and flint-rock. There is a gentle rise from the opening of the tunnel inwards, giving a natural drainage and leaving the chambers comparatively dry. The roof is good and is supported by pillars and heavy timbers. The mushroom-beds are located about 300 feet from the opening of the tunnel, and are made in the form of mounds about 3 feet by 12 feet, at the base, and 24 feet high, giving to the chambers the appearance of a subterranean graveyard. Many experiments have been made to determine the best form for the beds, and the mound

Jan 1, 1889

By Robert B. Smith

The South Texas Mineral Trend is now estimated to contain uranium reserves of 150 million pounds U308 . Within the past year, an estimated 10 million pounds U308 have been added to this gross reserve. It is probable that a similar amount has been identified in previously unknown orebodies that, as yet, have not been delimited or announced. Exploration that was limited in the past to a narrow band containing only the known trend has now expanded into older sediments updip and into younger units towards the coast. Uranium host formations are also now being explored at a considerable depth and distance eastward from known deposits. Only about 30 percent of the potential uranium host rocks in South Texas have been adequately explored. Geology The South Texas uranium deposits are confined mainly to sediments of the Tertiary system. Reserves are divided almost equally between the Whitsett Formation of the Jackson Group, the Catahoula Formation, and the Oakville Formation. A minor amount of the reserves occurs in sands of the Goliad Formation which may be either in the Tertiary or Quaternary Epoch. Figure 1 is a geologic column of the South Texas uranium host formations. These producing formations are marked with a mine symbol but there are also several prospect symbols that denote potentially favorable uranium host formations both younger and older from the producing formations. It is generally accepted by most workers in South Texas that the source for the uranium is the volcanic ash that is abundant within several of the formations. Likewise, the required reductant is considered to be hydrogen sulfide gas, derived from deeper seated hydrocarbon accumulations, that emanate upward along fault zones into favorable host-rock sand units. Within this basic framework of source, host, structure and hydrocarbons is where most of the reserves have been discovered and where most of the current exploration is either concentrating or expanding. Structure in South Texas is predominantly faults. Swarms of faults exist in zones paralleling the coast and running from the Rio Grande to the Sabine River. These faults are usually growth faults with the down-dropped block on the coastward side. Displacement may range from a few feet to a few hundred feet. Dips are near vertical in the younger rocks at the surface but become flatter as the fault cuts older beds in the subsurface. A map of the oil and gas fields in South Texas indicates a correlation between these fault swarms and accumulations of hydrocarbons. It is not coincidental that the known uranium trends closely follow the hydrocarbon accumulations and the faults swarms, all of which supports the theory of uranium concentration by groundwater movement through volcanic ash-rich beds into favorable host rocks impregnated with reducing hydrogen sulfide gases that migrate upward along fault planes from hydrocarbon accumulations. History Newcomers to South Texas are often amazed that active entry is possible in a district that has produced uranium for over 20 years. Understanding the conditions and occurrences of the past would explain why the opportunity still exists for companies not now active in South Texas to become active. Uranium was discovered in the middle 1950's in sandstone units of the Jackson Group at Tordillo Hill in Karnes County. This discovery was followed by a rush involving most of the major uranium exploration companies as well as several of the not-so-major. Those western prospectors who were used to numerous outcrops and neat land subdivisions were further discouraged by the small size and low grade of the deposits. Then after a brief blast, they left South Texas as they found it and returned to the richer diggings of New Mexico and Wyoming. Susquehanna Western was the only one to stay and develop mines in the area. Eventually they discovered enough ore along the Jackson outcrop to warrant constructing a small mill. They managed, with limited budget and diligent effort, to find enough ore to keep the mill going and eventually expanded into exploration in other formations. By the late 1960's, Susquehanna was mining from both the Jackson and Oakville deposits. About this time, the oil companies began to enter the uranium industry and found, that because of sound forward planning, they controlled the uranium on vast tracts of acreage. At this time, which was more than ten years after discovery, there was so little literature on South Texas uranium deposits that the oil companies began following the known trends and off-setting known orebodies. This, and a few kicks on some well gammaray logs, lead to the discovery of new areas in formations that previously had n o uranium discoveries. Still, the following of the trend as it crossed from one formation to another was the main geologic guide. Nowadays, we in South Texas feel that science has entered into the quest to discover new orebodies. The work of Galloway has indicated new pathways to explore. The understanding of multiple stages of oxidation and reduction has created some doubt about areas drilled in the past and abandoned. The expanded use of oil well logs and geochemical prospecting has lured the more progressive exploration companies off the mineral trend and into unexplored areas. Prognostication The fact that uranium exploration in South Texas has been active for only the past ten years is not an indication that South Texas is not a major uranium district. The geology of the South Texas uranium deposits as described here serves only to indicate that similar geology extends in all directions from the known mineral trend as can be seen on Figure 2.

Jan 1, 1979

The School of Mineral Industries is dedicated to education in mineral conservation and research by which the means may be found to make conservation effective. This includes diligent search for mineral truths and the energetic discovery, complete recovery, and maximum utilization of irreplaceable mineral resources. Standards of living depend upon two factors: human resources-intelligence, imagination, initiative, know-how, work; and natural resources-plants, animals, and minerals, including water, air, soil, heat and light from the sun, and all other such resources that are useful to man. Human relationships have not kept pace with scientific achievement; as a result man, in desperation, wittingly, premeditatively sacrifices freedom for security. Many natural resources, through overproduction, mismanagement, and greed, have definitely moved over into the exhausted or exhaustible category. The United States cannot maintain present standards of living on an agricultural economy alone, and serious harm can ensue if there are marked disproportions in numbers and relationships between city and rural populations. The most materialistic New Yorker must see virtue in bucolic loveliness. The United States is rated wasteful and inconsistent most of the time. It does not make sense to dole out through the keyhole what a wage earner can bring through the open door; to raise wages to lower the cost

Jan 1, 1950

By Joseph M. Dawson

Although eight new fields were discovered along the south central fault-line district of Texas during 1938, only one can be considered as of major importance. and as a whole the year was one of no very great development. Several prospects, particularly two, were condemned through drilling, which had been considered important for probable Edwards limestone production. The oil produced was approximately the same as during 1937; namely, about 9 million harrels. This, of course, does not represent potential production but that allowed under proration. The year witnessed the very rapid decline of operations and interest in Austin chalk production. It has been found that only in rare instances mill chalk production pay for itself, because the wells decline extremely rapidly and the recovery per acre, formerly estimated at 2500 bbl., is now considered to he around 1000 barrels. There was an intent interest in the drilling arid producing of edge and abandoned properties in the three Edwards lime producing fields; namely, Luling, Salt Flat and Darst Creek. Many good wells were completed on properties formerly considered below the water level or produced beyond the economic limit The Edwards is penetrated only a few inches and a very small charge of acid is used. The results have been surprisingly

Jan 1, 1939

By Joseph G. Wargo

An investigation of trends in exploration expenditures for a selected group of mining companies was undertaken for the interval 1968-1971. These trends were compared with financial factors that are associated with various groups of companies and the implications of these trends are indicated. The sample consists of 21 mining companies, of these, 19 are listed on the New York Stock Exchange and 2 are listed on the American Exchange. Twenty are American, one is Canadian. All are fundamentally "mining companies" in that they derive the bulk of their income from the ex- traction, sale, and at times, fabrication of metals from their own mines. This is in contrast to companies which have mineral exploration departments but derive the bulk of their revenues from sources other than mining, such as oil and gas sales. No companies which can be considered strictly as exploration companies are included in the sample. This definition held up in 1968, however, its strict application became more difficult through the years. In 1971, three or four of the companies were changing their character in that they were phasing out of the mining business and deriving a substantial part of their income from activities other than mining.

Jan 5, 1973

By Joseph M. Dawson

Although eight new fields were discovered along the south central fault-line district of Texas during 1938, only one can be considered as of major importance. and as a whole the year was one of no very great development. Several prospects, particularly two, were condemned through drilling, which had been considered important for probable Edwards limestone production. The oil produced was approximately the same as during 1937; namely, about 9 million harrels. This, of course, does not represent potential production but that allowed under proration. The year witnessed the very rapid decline of operations and interest in Austin chalk production. It has been found that only in rare instances mill chalk production pay for itself, because the wells decline extremely rapidly and the recovery per acre, formerly estimated at 2500 bbl., is now considered to he around 1000 barrels. There was an intent interest in the drilling arid producing of edge and abandoned properties in the three Edwards lime producing fields; namely, Luling, Salt Flat and Darst Creek. Many good wells were completed on properties formerly considered below the water level or produced beyond the economic limit The Edwards is penetrated only a few inches and a very small charge of acid is used. The results have been surprisingly

Jan 1, 1939

By Wallace E. Pratt

IRon-oRe deposits in the Philippine Islands became the subject of official record as early as 1664. Undoubtedly iron ore was known and recognized by the Filipinos long before the earliest Spanish records. It is even possible that the Filipino practice of smelting iron ore is, like the native copper smelting, older than the Spanish conquest of the islands. The first records have to do with the magnetite-hematite ores near the towns of Santa Inez and Bosoboso in Rizal Province, from 15 to 20 miles east of Manila. The magnetite-hematite ores of Bulacan were exploited in 1783. Similar ores near the town of Mambulao in Camarines Province yielded a number of specimens to be exhibited in Spain in 1834. With the exception, then, of the lateritic iron ores on the eastern coast of northern Surigao, the true nature of which was not recognized until 1914, the important iron-ore deposits of the Philippines had all been discovered before the islands came under the dominion of the United States. Indeed, in the Spanish documents relating to the history of iron mining are statements which, if their accuracy be not questioned, leave us in the Philippines today with much less iron ore than the Spaniards found. To quote, for example, a report submitted to the Superior Government in Spain in 1835 by one of its emissaries, Don Lorenzo Calvo: "The Philippine Islands, most excellent Sir, possess iron and exhibit it in nearly every known mineralogical combination, and in such abundance that the cordillera of the island of Luzon, from Montufar Point in San Bernardino Straits to Cape Bojeador, is composed of no other mineral than iron, its ranges, of the third order, being in content and structure totally iron of the best quality, the more valuable in that its combinations are such as to facilitate its fusion and to render its redaction to metal simple." Today, however, it is recognized that the iron-ore deposits in the Eastern Cordillera of Luzon constitute, not a continuous belt, but a series of widely separated deposits, including a half dozen orebodies within a distance of 10 miles in Bulacan Province, a single outcrop at Santa Inez, Rizal Province, farther south, and three deposits around

Jan 1, 1916

By Carroll F. Hardy

The day by day loss of industrial plants to gas and oil is chiefly by default. The coal industry is not selling its superior economy, safety, and other advantages to its customers. THE position of the coal industry has been affected by a wide variety of developments in the production and use of energy. The tempo of development and change has been increasing and the end is not in sight. Legislation is currently being proposed for commercial use of atomic power, and the employment of atomic energy in significant quantity will probably occur about the same time as the decline in production of petroleum and natural gas. But these developments are in the future and have little immediate effect on utilization and marketing of coal. While no one should try to suppress or retard the development of a new and economical source of energy, both the coal and private utility industry should be allowed to question how the nuclear power is to be used, who is to use it, and who is going to pay for it. The taxpayers have a monopoly on fissionable material and the knowledge to employ it. Any commercial use must stem from this source. It is not hard to visualize either taxpayer-subsidized private utility atomic power plants on one hand and super TVA's on the other. In view of the gains of gas and oil in the home heating field, it is interesting to compare the 1940 and 1950 census reports on the kind of fuel used for heating in occupied dwelling units. Table I shows that whereas coal provided 77 pct of the fuel for central heating (furnaces and boilers) in 1940, it was down to 45.4 pct in 1950. However, only about 1 1½ million units were lost in this 10-year period. In the non-central heating category, which principally includes stoves, the percentage declined from 39.2 to 25.6, but the units declined about 2½ million in number. The big increase was in heating units designed to burn gas and oil. Use of wood for central heating declined about one-third. Data on amount of fuels used for residential heating are not available, but information is on hand for residential and comnlercial space heating, see Table 11. Commercial space heating includes office buildings, churches, schools. and similar structures. The annual use of bituminous coal in these two categories declined about 1 million tons in the 10-year period. Other forms of solid fuel showed greater losses, except wood, which remained the same. Domestic stokers reached their high point in 1948 with about 1,200,000 in use. At the end of 1951 there were approximately 1,116,790 stokers in use. Conversions to gas and oil have been from hand-fired heating plants in the ratio of about 7 to 1 compared to stokers. In other words, for every one stoker which has been converted to gas or oil, seven hand-fired units have been converted to gas or oil. A bare recital of these data would indicate that the coal industry is holding its own reasonably well. However, 93.4 pct of the new homes built in 1951 were heated by gas or oil. Oil-burning equipment was installed in 37.8 pct and gas equipment in 55.6 pct of the new homes. This indicates that the public prefers gas when it is available, and that oil is second choice, with all forms of solid fuel apparently used when it is unavoidable. It must be pointed out, however, that during the period of rapid expansion of gas pipelines gas has been sold for house heating at prices that are in some cases actually lower than coal prices, or very nearly on a par. Gas has been sold at wells at far below the comparable price for oil produced from the same wells, and far below its actual worth. This situation is being remedied at the present time by increases in gas prices at the wells. For example, the wellhead price of gas in Texas averaged 7.494 per Mcf in 1952. In 1949 it was 4.59c per Mcf. This increase in price is being reflected in pipeline gas prices, and in most of the markets served by the pipelines the tendency is to get it out of the bargain basement type of sales. The American Gas Association estimates that at the end of 1952 there were in the United States about 11 million customers for gas house-heating, and the Association expects additional gains each year until around 18 million homes will be heated by gas in 1975. By 1975 there should be 60 million dwelling units to be heated in the United States, if dwelling units increase at the same rate as the population. If the gas industry heats 18 million dwelling units by that time, this still leaves 42 million units to be heated by some other fuel. If oil is used to heat 18 million dwelling units in that same year, 24 million would of necessity be heated by coal, coke, wood, electricity, or another fuel. The total number of dwelling units using coal listed in the 1950 Census was 18,776,000, so it would appear that coal has a chance at least to stand still in the tonnage sold for domestic use. In the first quarter of 1953, 2044 domestic stokers

Jan 1, 1955

By Robert Hunt

(New York Meeting, February, 1913.) I HAVE frequently stated that while the chemical composition of steel is important, yet even greater importance is connected with the mechanical and heat treatment of the metal. During the past year I encountered such a positive example of that fact that I deem it worth putting upon record. A prominent railway system divided an order for open-hearth steel rails between two steel works, both of which are under the control of the one corporation; giving to one about 18,000 tons, and to the other 7,500 tons of the same section and to be made under the same specifications. The rolling results obtained in the two mills varied so widely that a study of the figures is intensely interesting and serves to illustrate the advantages obtained by careful ingot casting, and, quite as pertinently, the possible benefits of careful subsequent heating and rolling with moderate reductions in the rolling process. The smaller order was rolled complete in four installments during the same months that the larger order was being made in six separate installments; but, to permit of exact comparisons, the totals of the four installments (completing the order with the mill which I will call A) are given with the totals of the first four installments of the larger order, made by the mill designated as B. These rolling results are:

Jan 5, 1913

By J. M. Hartman

ONE of the most important subjects to the blast-furnace engineer is a thorough knowledge of the conditions affecting the temperature in the different portions of the furnace. All efforts to decrease the consumption of fuel and improve the working of the furnace must be based upon it, and I may, therefore, be permitted to place before you the results of my observations, and detail the conclusions to which they have led me. Tracing the thermic conditions from below upwards we have at the bottom of a blast furnace making No. 3 iron a temperature of 2900' F., which increases slightly to a point a little below the tuyeres. In the immediate vicinity of the tuyeres the temperature is somewhat lower, owing to the entering blast; but a short distance above the tuyeres, where all the oxygen of the blast has been converted into carbonic acid, the highest temperature in the furnace must be attained. This carbonic acid is, however, almost as soon as formed, converted by the glowing coal into carbonic oxide, a process which absorb, heat, reduces the temperature, and provides the active agent for the reduction of the iron ores. In its ascent the hot carbonic oxide gradually parts with its heat, first melting the descending iron and earthy materials, which drop down to the hearth of the furnace. The limit of this zone of fusion is rather sharply defined, and the temperature above this zone suddenly decreases. In its further ascent the hot gas drives off the carbonic acid from the limestone, which causes a further absorption of heat, and finally the gas escapes at the top, at a ternperature of about 250' F. if the furnace is working well. These changes of temperature I have attempted to represent graphically,

Jan 1, 1880