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By Frank C. Stevens

The availability, cost and use of fuel and electricity for the cement industry is difficult to predict with a great degree of accuracy because the historical pattern of factors affecting energy was disrupted during the years 1972, 1973 and 1974. Forecasting is both an art and science and is based on .the premise that the best indicator of the future is the past. Statistical data is used to guide economists and businessmen in their predictions of the future. Even though the energy picture is changing, it is believed that electricity and fuel will be available for the cement industry in the foreseeable future, and this energy will be more costly in relation to the other items that are part of the manufacturing costs for portland cement.

Jan 1, 1977

By R. J. McLaughlin

Acid mine drainage (AMD) can occur as a natural phenomenon through oxidation of sulfide minerals. Oxidation by air and water can be exacerbated by mining. Because AMD can exhibit low pH, it is capable of extracting heavy metals from mineral deposits. The result is highly acidic drainage with elevated heavy metal concentrations -the combination of which can cause extensive environmental damage. Because of the importance of these factors, this paper is focused on sulfate based AMD. Due to widespread mining, the occurrence of AMD is ubiquitous. As a result, several approaches to treatment have been developed. Chemical treatment using alkali is most commonly employed to treat AMD. There are alternative methods of treatment, as well as alternative ways of handling treatment sludges or concentrates. Dewatering of sludge or concentrates is beyond the scope of this paper.

Jan 1, 1996

By X. X. Shao

Dewatering of ultra-fine clean coal slurry to a low moisture level of20 percent is difficult using the conventional techniques. A novel approach, which utilized mixing of fibrous waste material, such as paper, carpet and wood, with coal slurry prior to dewatering was developed. It was found that addition of about 10 Kg/t of carpet fibers or 5 Kg/t of raw paper pulp lowered the filter cake moisture from 22.5 to 18 percent. The compressive strength of the filter cake improved from 0 to 4.5 Kglcm2 and impact resistance from 0 to 4. The experimental data indicated that the handling character of the dewatered fine coal was improved significantly.

Jan 1, 1998

By T. M. Klemetti, T. J. Batchler, T. Matthews

From 2013–2017, there were over 1,120 documented injuries, including fourteen fatalities, from ground falls in underground mines in the United States (MSHA 2017). The majority of these ground-fall injuries were not caused by a major roof collapse, but from falls of smaller rocks from the immediate roof. Roof screen can significantly reduce the number of these injuries and has been widely used in underground coal mines for surface control. Because of the potential of reducing ground-fall injuries, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is further evaluating the performance characteristics of welded-wire screen as used in underground coal mines by conducting a laboratory testing program using the Mine Roof Simulator (MRS) in NIOSH’s Bruceton Research Center Laboratory in Pittsburgh, PA. The load-displacement characteristics of an 8-ft x 12-ft area of 8-gauge welded-wire screen were evaluated using a test frame designed for testing multiple load-pull locations. In previous tests, load-pull contact was always in the center of the bolted screen section. In this study, larger pull contact areas are used to simulate roof falls. The information obtained in this and similar studies can be used to better understand the loading behavior and surface control capability of roof screen in underground mines. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND The large majority of ground-fall injuries are caused by falls of smaller rocks from the immediate roof. Various controls are currently being used in mines to control this surface rock, including the use of wire roof screen. In mines where wire roof screen has been installed, injuries from rock falls have been reduced dramatically (Robertson and Hinshaw, 2001). Roof screen has the potential to prevent hundreds of injuries caused by the fall of small rocks between permanent roof supports (Compton et al., 2007). Because of this potential for reducing ground-fall injuries, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is evaluating the performance characteristics of welded-wire screen as used in underground coal mines by conducting a laboratory testing program in the Mine Roof Simulator (MRS) in NIOSH’s Bruceton Research Center Laboratory in Pittsburgh, PA. Previous tests to evaluate the performance characteristics of various types of screen have been conducted by the University of Alberta (Tannant, 2001). In this study, the load-displacement properties of welded-wire, chain-link, and expanded-metal mesh were measured by performing full-scale pull tests. A flat steel plate was pulled through a screen test sample that was bolted to a special test frame while the pulling force and mesh displacement were measured. These tests established the general load-displacement behavior of the screen. Peak load capacities and stiffness were determined for each screen type, showing how welded-wire mesh has a much stiffer initial loading response, whereas chain-link and expanded-metal mesh have large displacement capabilities and exhibit significant post-peak ductility.

Jan 1, 2019

By William P. Blacutt

This paper describes the strategy, the struggles, and the obstacles encountered during the last two years in the ongoing process to capitalize Vinto. The effort involves the offering of a vertically integrated business package composed of the tin and antimony smelters along with the two principal tin mines of the country. Capitalization: Bolivia's Innovative Approach for Privatization, the Vinto Case provides a summary of hard-earned lessons. These experiences can be success- fully implemented in other nations committed to transforming their state natural resource sector.

Jan 1, 1998

By Lauren M. Roberts, Ralph R. Sacrison

Pipeline or borehole free-fall transfer of material has long been done in support of underground mining. This paper addresses some characteristics and design elements in selecting systems suitable to the transferred media and the mine requirements. Though aspects of overall systems are discussed, principal attention is directed to the slickline/dropline/transfer line and the discharge diverter/rockbox/energy dissipator/boot. These terms are common to these systems, often used interchangeably, and will be used as appropriate to the material, equipment and construction. Following several design sections, fabrication and construction, and system operating and maintenance procedures are discussed.

Feb 1, 2025

By R. R. Klimpel

The industrial processing of ores containing precious metals such as gold is generally very mining site specific, e. g. McQuiston and Shoemaker (1985), vanZyl et. a1. (1988), Fuerstenau and Hendrix (1990), and Hausen et. a1. (1990). The variety of various mineral processing techniques employed is extensive and includes size reduction, size classification, gravity separation, roasting, cyanidation, chemical and/or bacterial leaching, ion exchange and/or solvent extraction, and froth flotation. Gold occurs in the earth's crust on the average in very low concentration estimated by various sources to be between two and five parts per billion. For a specific ore deposit to be considered as an economic source of gold, generally a concentration of near one part-per million (one gram / Mton) or more is required. From a mineralogical viewpoint, gold often occurs in its native or free form. However, it can also occur as gold compounds of telluride, antimony, and selenium contained within either sulfide minerals such as pyrite, arsenopyrite. and pyrrhotite or, to a less extent, within silicate, oxide, and carbonate minerals. In many locations, alloying of gold with silver is found. The optimal processing method for recovering gold is determined by many factors such as the mineralogy of the gold bearing minerals as well as the associated mineralogy of the gangue minerals, the type of liberation profile of the gold bearing minerals upon' size reduction, and the particle size of the gold itself. Free or native gold particles can vary in size from the extreme of large nuggets to very finely disseminated gold associated in a complex sulfide mineral matrix. Typically free gold particles of several hundred microns or larger are efficiently recovered by one or more of a number of gravity based techniques due to the large specific gravity differential of gold (19.3 to 15) versus typical gangue minerals (5 to 2.7). When gold is associated with a sulfide (usually pyrite) matrix, historically most industrial plants involving size reduction and subsequent liberation have operated in a size range of 50 to 80 percent less than 75 microns. Grinding finer than this has been normally not economical unless the ore has a high gold content in the feed ore.

Jan 1, 1998

By M. Polat

Variations in flotation rate by particle size and specific gravity have been investigated for three different bituminous coals. The flotation rates for various components were determined by separating the products of bulk flotation into size-specific gravity fractions. The effects of feed size and reagent addition on the flotation response of individual size-specific gravity fractions were evaluated.

Jan 1, 1994

By J. L. Watson

n the U.S., lead has been produced via blast furnace processing for over a century, and the slags from that pyro-metallurgical process have been accumulating on industrial sites over that extended period. Lead blast furnace slags typically contain both lead and zinc compounds in an iron-silicate matrix, and it appears highly likely that such materials will have to be processed in the near future to meet with EPA regulations. Thus it is appropriate to investigate possible processing routes to render the slags non-hazardous and simultaneously to recover metal values to partially off-set the inherent high cost of processing such materials. There are two major processing alternatives: one being pyrometallurgical and the other hydrometallurgical. The research reported here investigates leaching/solution purification/recovery processes for lead and presents experimental data for the treatment of lead blast furnace slags from S.E. Missouri. The results of the research suggest that both lead and zinc can be removed effectively from the slag, and that metallic lead can be recovered directly from the organic extractant utilized for solution purification.

Jan 1, 1995

By Jon Kellar, Samuel Kessinger, Prasoon Diwakar

Tantalum (Ta) and niobium (Nb) are extracted from many different ore types. The major economic orebody mined for tantalum and niobium consists of tantalite ((FeMn)Ta2O5) and columbite ((FeMnNb2O5)) in a solid-solution mineral commonly referred to as “coltan.” The largest supplying region, The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), is unfortunately also the most ethically compromised source for this critical mineral. Officially, the U.S. government has deemed coltan ore from the DRC a “conflict mineral” [1]. The lack of pragmatic and effective local mining regulation in Central Africa, when coupled with high levels of violence and corruption, has spawned a widespread, illegal, unethical and, most importantly, unsafe economy. This illicit economy is centered around first, illegally mining these valuable conflict minerals and second, smuggling these minerals into the global supply chain. Handheld spectroscopy devices could provide further transparency to these opaque supply chains, giving miners, traders and refiners the ability to authenticate the provenance of the minerals they encounter, and allowing companies to prove compliance with the regulatory agencies attempting to curtail illicit mining.

Mar 1, 2025

By M. S. Klima

A 25-mm diameter dense-medium cyclone was tested to investigate the effects of geometry and operating conditions on cyclone performance when processing -150 I'm coal. The emphasis was on examining those variables (e.g., flow rate and inlet velocity) which impact the separation kinetics (specifically the number of g's and the mean retention time) and the occurrence of apparent bypass. Apparent bypass, indicated by partition curve "tails", results from the short circuiting of the feed coal to one or both of the product streams and represents a loss and/or contamination of the clean coal. This paper presents the results for this series of tests.

Jan 1, 1993

Laboratory testing by the Federal Bureau of Mines has shown that the removal of insoluble slimes using selective flocculation and flotation is a viable method for treating low-grade potash ores which have a high content of water-insoluble impurities. Results indicated that up to 85 percent of the insoluble slimes could be removed from sylvinite ore containing 5 percent water insolubles and 13 percent K20 using nonionic or cationic polyacrylamide flocculants and cationic, anionic, and/or nonionic collectors. Subsequent potash flotation recovered up to 88 percent of the potash in rougher concentrates containing 47 to 57 percent K20. Sizing and cleaner flotation of the rougher concentrates upgraded the products to 60 percent K20. Filtration of the insoluble slimes flotation concentrates recovered 87 to 0 percent of the brine. Flotation concentrate filtration rates were 7 times faster than the filtration rates of mechanically deslimed products.

Jan 1, 1977

By Alvaro Veizaga, Samuel Cuellar

In recent years, Industry 4.0 has generated a change in the way companies in various industrial sectors design, produce and deliver products and services, and is focused on the interconnection of systems, the advanced access and management of large amounts of data in real time, and the implementation of emerging technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT). Artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), digital twins (DT), robotics, virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR), among others [1]. DTs are accurate and dynamic virtual models that replicate physical systems, where it is possible to simulate and optimize operations before implementing real-world changes [3]. These features make it possible to reduce investment costs, minimize risks and improve strategic decision-making. These benefits are of utmost importance for tailings storage facilities (TSF), since they are facilities aimed at the safe storage of tailings and with the constant need for growth [4]. This paper evaluates the applicability of a DT in a TSF from a conceptual perspective, providing the advantages of its implementation, but also the barriers identified in the industry based on the authors’ experience.

Feb 1, 2025

By G. Davis

It is well known that the anticipated mineral price at the start of a prospective mineral project can have an overwhelming effect on a property's ex ante value. However, possible price movements throughout the life of a project can also have an impact on this value. This paper demonstrates how different potential price paths can affect project value. When considering commodity price projections for mine valuations, it is thus necessary to estimate not only the expected commodity price at the start of the project, but also the manner in which that price is likely to fluctuate throughout the project's life.

Jan 1, 1995

By E. Oraby, S. Garcia, A. Thurgood, D. Bertoldi, G. O’Malley

Mining and Process Solutions (MPS) most advanced process, GlyCatTM is the only process that can be easily adapted to existing cyanidation plants in the market today whose real advantages over cyanidation are when treating copper containing ores, concentrates or tailings. With such complex material, GlyCatTM requires 70-90% less cyanide addition to achieve the same precious metal extraction. However, GlyCatTM is not simply cyanidation with added glycine. It is a completely different process where the solution chemistry and conditions needed to effectively leach the precious metals are quite different. Downstream however, the process is largely unchanged as the recovery of the leached gold and silver uses existing known processes such as conventional activated carbon or zinc cementation (Merrill-Crowe process). Another advantage is lower SCN, OCN, WAD and no free cyanide in the effluent which can substantially reduce cyanide detoxification requirements and decrease the OHS and ESG risk of the operation. This paper outline some of these differences and presents testwork, piloting and process examples to highlight the advantageous of this new process over conventional cyanidation.

Feb 1, 2023

By Sean Dessureault

The mining industry has used fleet management systems (FMSs) for decades. These systems were developed long ago in large truck-and-shovel mines, where hardware sales were the core business driver for vendors. These traditional models can be overhauled in the era of the Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data, gamification and low-cost tablet technology. Relatively low-cost tablets are ubiquitous in modern life, and they are packed with communication radios and sensors like Global Positioning System (GPS) and inertial measurement units used widely for games, fitness measures and navigation. These powerful computer devices provide the same, if not more, sensing capability than traditional fleet management hardware, all at a fraction of the cost and without complicated cables or challenging supply lines. 

By Henrique D. G Turrer, Desmond Edifor, Marcello R. Cruz, Josue M. de S Junior, Darius Wonyen

A geometallurgical testing program was developed to anticipate ore behavior in the beneficiation plant and support production planning. Over 100 drill core samples from a major iron ore deposit were tested using bench-scale gravity and magnetic separation methods to assess variability in process responses. Results showed significant differences in key attributes such as iron grade, gangue content, slimes generation, and specific gravity, directly impacting concentrate grade, recoveries, and tailings quality. Correlation analysis and regression models were used to link feed properties to process outcomes, and a mass recovery estimation equation (Wrec) was developed for predictive use. The study proposes the integration of geometallurgical parameters—such as Fe, SiO2, Al2O3, LOI, ore type, size fractions, and slimes content—into the block model to support blending decisions and minimize operational risks. This work establishes a solid foundation for long-term mine-to-plant integration, with future phases aiming to expand testing and build a calibrated geometallurgical model.

Feb 22, 2026

By George E. Valadão, Iván A. Reyes, Mizraim U. Flores, Armando C. Araujo, Rubén H. Olcay

Dewatering tailings to higher grades than paste produces a stable deposit that typically does not require retention dams and is called a “dry stack.” A proposal of different dewatering techniques applied in the fine tailings produced after final desliming phase, obtained from the treating of phosphatic ores, is the main objective of this work. The dewatering techniques evaluated were column thickener, deep cone classifier, and hyperbaric filtration. Calcite and dolomite were the main mineral contained in the phosphate tailings and these have a very fine granulometry; the tailings presented different behaviours related to the dewatering technique applied. The test column thickener and deep cone classifier with the best operational parameters found to obtain a maximum percentage of solids in mass were ~ 71% and ~ 67%, with values of yield stress ~ 200 Pa and ~ 100 Pa, respectively. In the hyperbaric filtration, a cake with ~ 10% moisture was obtained. This indicates that the transportation conditions are not the same. The overflow turbidity levels obtained from column thickener and deep cone classifier test did not exceed the value 100 NTU, whilst for the filtrate of the hyperbaric filter obtained values ~ 800 NTU. It was possible to preliminary estimate the recovery direct of water, considering each dewatering technique for final disposal of the tailings. The best dewatering techniques obtained were in the following order for the disposal in phosphate fine tailings dams; the hyperbaric filter showed an excellent dewatering capacity with productions rates around 160 kg h− 1 m− 2 for moisture cake of 10%, followed by the column thickener and deep cone classifier with paste ~ 71% of solids (W/W) and high-density slurry ~ 67% of solids (W/W), respectively.

Dec 23, 2023

By Yueyue Ding, Yuanhui Li, Zhengrong Li, Pengfei Yu, Kunmeng Li, Zhipeng Xiong

The stress evolution and failure characteristics of overburden were studied during multi-stope mining for a gently inclined thin orebody. Firstly, an indoor physical experiment was conducted on the excavation of a multi-stope mine with an orebody dip angle of 20°. The results show that the vertical stress concentration area gradually shifts to deep-buried rock mass with the mining from shallow to deep buried stopes, resulting in shear failure originating from high stress. On the contrary, the pressure relief zone presents an asymmetric distribution characteristic that is biased towards the upper part of the goaf, resulting in large subsidence and tensile failure of the stope #1 and #2 roofs. Secondly, the numerical simulation model under the same geological condition was established to measure the roof deformation at different stages of mining. The numerical simulation results are in good agreement with the physical test results; the roof displacement is largest in stope #2, second-largest in stope #1, and smallest in stope #3. Finally, the evolution of deviator stress concentration, displacement field and potential failure zone of overburden under different orebody dip angles were studied. As the dip angle of the orebody increase, the deep-buried stope roof changes from deviator stress release to deviator stress concentration in different stages of mining, and shear failure is most likely to be induced when the orebody dip angle is 30°. Meanwhile, the closure displacement of the stope roof decreases gradually, while the tangential displacement increases, so the anti-sliding ability of the support bodies in the stope should be improved. The potential tensile failure zone gradually shifts from the center of the goaf to the upper part, and the deep-buried stope roof evolves from tensile failure to shear failure. Results of this research expected to provide guiding significance for stope support design to control roof deformation and failure, to ensure the safety of the stope.

Mar 2, 2023

By J. Kretschmann, O. Drusche, S. Krause

Mining companies are caught between the growing international relevance of ESG (Environmental, Social and Governance) investments and the need to secure their “social license to operate” by considering the needs of their stakeholders. In the search for sustainable business models, the concept of the circular economy (CE) is gaining momentum among practitioners and scholars, as it enables the creation of shared value and thus strengthens the trust of investors and stakeholder relationships. However, there is a lack of a sectorspecific CE framework providing guidance to decision-makers in evaluating promising activities. A gap, which this contribution aims to address.

Mar 2, 2022