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By C. A. Hartnagel

The production of petroleum in New York state in 1942 amounted to 5,410,000 bbl. This represents an increase over each of the four preceding years, and, with the exception of 1937, is the largest production since the peak of over six million barrels in 1882, shortly after the discovery of oil in Allegany County. The oil industry in New York is virtually stabilized and there has been little or no exploration for new sources of supply in recent years. The boundaries of the present fields were established more than 30 years ago and since then no additional reserves have been found. Deep drilling for natural gas during the past 10 years both within and without the oil fields has failed to find oil in quantity below the present producing sands of Devonian age. Oil Since 1882, the New York fields have produced approximately 140 million barrels of oil. Of this amount, 65 million was produced up to the year 1919 by ordinary pumping methods; that is, without flooding by water or the use of other secondary-recovery methods. In the year 1919, when a law was passed making the use of water-flooding methods legal, the oil production, of the state amounted to only 851,000 bbl. In the 23 years since 1919, there have been produced in the state 75 million barrels, or 10 million more than in the previous 37 years, which included the period of flush production. Price.—On March 26, the price of crude oil was raised from $2.75 to $3.00 per barrel, hut this increase had little or no effect on the number of wells drilled. In the Allegany field, which accounts for three fourths of the state's oil production, 1259 wells were completed in 1942, 7 less than in 1941. The smaller number of wells drilled was not only due to the shortage of labor but also was caused by the fact that in water-flooding territory a definite program for drilling wells is followed, and the flush period of an oil well is not usually reached in time to profit by any given price increase. Daily Production.—All of the oil wells in New York state, some 21,000 in number, are small producers. The average daily oil production is 7/10 bbl. per well. Under good flooding conditions, a maximum production of 5 to 8 bbl, a day is reached about one year after the flood begins to act on the well. In 5 years the daily production usually is less than one barrel. Although most of the oil in New York is produced by flooding, an estimated 2500 old wells produce without flooding. Some of these produce as little as 1/20 bbl. a day and are pumped only at intervals. The small producing Wells are mostly on lands leased to the larger oil companies and later will be included in a flooding program. At present, they are pumped only because the owners of the land insist on the royalty. Government Aid Needed.—Because of its good lubricating qualities, New York oil is one of those for which there is an insistent and growing demand, but even at its present price of $3.00 per barrel, many of the operators are producing at a loss.

Jan 1, 1943

By W. S. McCain, B. A. Wilcox, A. H. Clauer

The creep and creep-fracture behavior of a Ni-200-2Th0, alloy has been studied over the temperature range 816° to 1038°C and stress range 4000 to 19,000 psi Specimens having their axes either parallel or transverse to the final sheet-rolling direction were tested in air, and the apparent activation energy for creep was found to be 92 kcal per mole, regardless of specinien orientation. The stress dependence 01- the steady-state creep rate, was satisfied by where n depended on orientation; n = 9.7 for rrzaterial transverse to the rolling direction and n = 24.3 for material parallel to the rolling direction. In the latter case, the relation was also valid. The rupture strength of material parallel to the rolling direction was -1.5 times gveater than the transverse rupture strength. Several tests in vacuum revealed that here the creep rate was higher and rupture life lower than for comparable tests in air. THERE is an increased interest today in producing improved dispersion-hardened alloys for high-temperature structural applications. This had led various materials designers to modify existing alloys, such as thoriated nickel. One system that has received considerable attention is based on chromium additions to Ni-ThO2, with the obvious motive of improving the oxidation resistance. Another effect of chromium is that of lowering the stacking-fault energy, y, of nickel. For example, the addition of 30 wt pct Cr decreases y from -225 erg per sq cm for pure nickel1 to -70 erg per sq cm.' This decrease in y could have several effects on the deformation behavior. There is some evidence that cross slip of dislocations around Tho2 particles is a mechanism of tensile3 and creep4 deformation in TD Nickel (Ni + 2 vol pct ThO2) at temperatures below 0.5 the absolute melting point of nickel, T,. A decrease in ? by chromium additions should increase the difficulty of cross slip. Also it has been suggested that the high-temperature (T > 0.5Tm) rate-controlling creep process in "recrystallized" Ni-Tho2 alloys is the climb of edge dislocations over Tho2 particles.5 According to weertman6 a decrease in the stacking-fault energy should decrease the dislocation climb velocity resulting in a decreased steady-state creep rate. Thus, chromium additions to recrystallized Ni-Tho2 alloys would be expected to decrease the creep rate, all other conditions being constant. However, a difficulty arises when the stacking-fault concept is applied to high-temperature creep of dispersion-strengthened metals which are produced on a commercial or semicommercial scale. This occurs because the materials are processed so that they have a high-stored energy of cold work, and the other substructural effects could obscure any influence of stacking-fault energy per se. An example of an alloy with a high stored energy of cold work is TD Nickel bar. This material has a fibrous grain structure (1 I diam by 10 to 15 p long), and the structure is stabilized by the ThO2 particles. Annealing at high temperatures, e.g., 3 hr at 1300°C, causes no recrystallization or grain growth.4 Previous work by the authors4 showed that the high -temperature creep behavior of TD Nickel could not be related to any simple dislocation theory of creep, and this probably was associated with the complex initial structure of the material.

Jan 1, 1968

By A. Long, A. Silverman, J. L. Kulp

Garth Crosby has written an excellent geologic description of the deposits surrounding the Gem stocks in the Coeur d'Alene district. The ore deposits in the area of the Gem stocks may hold the key to the age and mineralization history of the entire Coeur d'Alene district. A recent isotopic study10 of the Coeur d'Alene district in this laboratory illustrates that a classical geologic interpretation of these deposits, with its implications for the whole district, may lead to erroneous conclusions. For this reason it seems pertinent to submit a summary of these results and an interpretation of the mineralizing history of the Coeur d'Alene districts. Pitchblende from the Sunshine mine has been dated as 1100-1200 million years (m.y.) by Kerr and Kulp,11 and Eckelmann and Kulp.12 This pitchblende is known to predate the major sulphide introduction in the Sunshine mine, but it clearly follows the metamorphism and folding of the Belt Series. Recently, Goldich (personal communication) dated sericite from the Belt rocks as 1200 m.y. by the potassium-argon method. This date establishes a minimum Belt age if the sericite is of metamorphic origin and a maximum age if detrital. The Belt Series, therefore, is not latest Precambrian. Lead isotope ratios of galenas have been measured and model ages calculated by Bate, et all3 for the Sunshine mine, Farquhar and Cummingl4 or the Bunker Hill and Sullivan mine, and Cannonl6,18 for a few other deposits in the district. Galenas from similar deposits in Southern British Columbia have been measured by Bate, et al,23 Farquhar and Gumming,11 and Wanless and Leech." The new work in this laboratory includes leads from ten widely scattered mines north and south of the Osburn fault, and through a vertical distance of over 5000 ft (Star mine). Included in this group are the Hercules, Sunset, and Mountain Goat mines, which are adjacent to the Gem stocks. In addition, galenas from stringers which cut the Gem stocks in the Success and Sunrise mines and the Hercules hanging wall dike in the lower western portion of the Hercules mine, were included in the study. All of the above leads, except one, give model ages of 1300-1400 m.y. for the time of segregation from the parent material. The concordance of the common lead and U-Pb ages, the great horizontal and vertical uniformity of the lead ratios, the sulphur ratios of two Sunshine mine galenas and three galenas from the Edith, Page, and Hercules mines indicating average crustal sulphur, and the U23/Pb204 ratio inferred for the original lead environment, indicate that the entire mineralization of the Coeur d'Alene-British Columbia base metal belt was derived from a deep source and emplaced in the Precambrian. One sample of galena from sulphide stringers cutting the North Gem stock at the Sunrise Prospect mine gave a modern (i.e., Tertiary) lead ratio. This mine is located at the northern tip of the stock. The presence of modern lead suggests mobilization of some rock lead during the intrusion of the Gem stocks and their outliers. Larsen et al.l8 have dated the Gem stocks as Tertiary by the lead alpha method. If Coeur d'Alene mineralization was genetically related to Tertiary magma formation and intrusion

Jan 1, 1961

By O. S. True, C. H. Herty

It is well known that manganese will desulfurize molten iron through the formation of manganese sulfide, which, being only slightly soluble in the metal, rises to and enters the slag where it remains as such (mixer slag) or is converted partly or wholly to calcium sulfide (basic open-hearth slag). The reaction by which manganese sulfide is formed is Mn + FeS = MnS + Fe. This reaction is generally considered to be reversible, although McCancel states that such is not the case. The experimental work was carried out to confirm the results of Roh12 as to the reversibility of the reaction. Six trials are herein considered. In each 200 gm. of electrolytic iron free from manganese and sulfur were melted in a pure zirconia crucible in a carbon resistance electric furnace. To the melted iron in runs 2, 3 and 4 metallic manganese and manganese sulfide were added to give 1, 2 and 4 per cent. manganese respectively, with 0.50 per cent, of sulfur in each. In runs 5, 6 and 7, metallic manganese and iron sulfide to give the same proportions of. manganese and sulphur as in runs 2, 3 and 4, were added. The melts were held molten in the furnace for an hour and then cast into small ingots. The results of these melts are as follows: Ingredients of Charge Analysis or InRot ManOaneBe, SulfUR, ManOaneBe. SULFUR, Run Material Charged PeR Cent. PeR Cent. Per Cent. PeR Cent. 2 MnS + Mn............... 1.0 0.452 0.636 0.367 3 MnS + Mn............... 2.0 0.50 1.57 0.310 4 MnS + Mn............... 4.0 0.50 2.81 0.230 5 FeS + Mn................ 1.0 0.50 0.647 0.397 6 FeS + Mn................ 2.0 0.50 1.45 0.374 7 FeS + Mn................ 4.0 0.50 2.73 0.195

Jan 1, 1925

By H. R. Gardner

The heat treatmmt of plutonium was studied using the Jominy end-quenching technique commonly used for determining the hardenability of steel. Plutonium specimens were end-guenched from temperatures in each of the ß, y, d, d') and E phases. One series of specimens with a low-iron content, 165 pprn Fe, and another gvoup with a high-iron content, 678 pprn Fe, were used in order to study the effect of a Pu-Pu,Fe eutectic network on the hardness and micro-structure. Hardness traverses indicated no significant variations in hardness with either cooling rate or quench temperature. Metallographic studies indicated major effects on microstructure. Grain size was found to vary markedly with quenching temperature and cooling rate. It was determined that the Pu-PueFe eutectic network could be modified extensively by heat treatment, including spheroi -dization in the y phase and 6 phase below 413°C. An unidentified spheroidal inclusion was observed to go into solution in the delta and higher temperature phases. 1 HE element plutonium is unique among metals in that it has six allotropic forms in the solid state.' These have been designated' as the a, ß, y, d, d', and phases. The respective phase transformations occur at approximate temperatures of 122", 210°, 319°, 450°, and 480°C with a melting point at 640°C. With this number of phase transformations it becomes pertinent to consider the effect of heat treatment and cooling rate in the various phases on the microstructure and hardness of plutonium. To determine; the effect of a wide range of cooling rates, the Jominy end-quenching technique was applied to cylindrical plutonium specimens. In addition, since the presence of iron in amounts greater than 500 pprn is common in plutonium and results in a network of the Pu-Pu6Fe eutectic, it was decided to study heat treatment effects on two bomb reduced plutonium buttons with different iron contents. A low iron button containing 165 ppm Fe and a high iron button containing 678 ppm Fe were selected for this comparison. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Experimental Material. The cylindrical bars for Jominy quenching were cast from button stock in vacuo in MgO coated graphite molds. Metal pouring temperature was approximately 950°C and the molds were preheated to 300°C. The castings were machined to 0.5 in. diam. by 2.5 in. long cylinders. Chemical analysis and density data for the two groups of Jominy specimens containing different iron contents are presented in Table I. Except for iron, heats 19-12-1 and 20-2-1 are comparable within the limits of analytical accuracy. Representative specimens from the low-iron and high-iron bars were taken for metallographic examination. The low iron specimen was found to have extensive microcracking, Fig. 1. In addition, numerous unidentified spheroidal inclusions were present, Fig. 17. The average grain size of the low-iron plutonium is 0.068 mm, Fig. 4. In the high-iron plutonium, a Pu-Pu6Fe eutectic network is prominent, Fig. 7. The average size of the network is 0.100 mm. Unidentified spheroidal inclusions were also common in the high-iron plutonium. The average grain size of the high-iron plutonium is 0.036 mm. Experimental Technique. A Jominy end-quenching fixture was fabricated for glove box use. A 2.5 in. water height was used with an orifice of 0.250 in. ID. The orifice to specimen distance was maintained at 0.5 in. Annealing temperatures of 160°, 265°, 400°, 465°, and 535°c were chosen for the study of the effect of quenching from ß, y, d, d', and e phases on microstructure and hardness. During quenching, cooling curves were obtained from the Jominy specimens at distances from the quenched end of 1/16, 1/8, 3/8, 3/4, 1-1/4, and 2 in. Cooling rate calculations were made from the cooling curves for temperature intervals of 100° to 110° 160" to 170°, 330" to 340°, 420° to 430°, and 490° to 500°c. These temperature intervals were chosen

Jan 1, 1962

By James Terry Duce

The symposium on production for the year 1941 contains few papers on the foreign situation. Rigid censorship prevails in various countries, as the question of the volume of petroleum supplies has become one of great strategic importance. This is even truer than in the last war, owing to greater mechanization of armies. It has always been the policy of officers in charge of the symposium to refrain from publishing information that might possibly injure national or private interests. At the close of the war we hope again to publish full and accurate records of production abroad. Excerpts from Circular to AutHORs In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the fol-lowing excerpts from the Circular to Authors. The field is the unit in this tabulation. In cases of fields extending across State boundaries, such as Rodessa, it is suggested that each State author treat the section of the field in his State as a unit, and by a footnote indicate that the field extends into an adjacent State. Each space in Table I may represent one of four possibilities; either it is not applicable to the particular field, or the proper entry is not determinable, or the proper entry may be determinable but is not determinable from data available to the author, or the proper entry is determinable. When spaces are not applicable, leave blank; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable but not de-terminable from data available to the author, please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author, make such entries. y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. The entry of a zero is a positive declaration, and an important declaration where it is in order. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entry need not be hedged to such extent as when the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. It is thought that the nearest whole numbers are sufficiently accurate for our purposes except as to percentage of sulphur in oil. If an author desires to report any other figures to tenths, he may do so. The quantity of gas produced should include, where possible, gas sold or otherwise marketed, and gas blown into the air, burned as flares or otherwise wasted. Segregation of these figures would be interesting if the authors can make such segregation. In any event, the figures should represent as nearly as possible the total quantity of gas removed from the reservoir.. Under the columns on "Depth," the average depth to the top of the productive zones and to the bottom of the productive wells, when

Jan 1, 1942

By James Terry Duce

The symposium on production for the year 1941 contains few papers on the foreign situation. Rigid censorship prevails in various countries, as the question of the volume of petroleum supplies has become one of great strategic importance. This is even truer than in the last war, owing to greater mechanization of armies. It has always been the policy of officers in charge of the symposium to refrain from publishing information that might possibly injure national or private interests. At the close of the war we hope again to publish full and accurate records of production abroad. Excerpts from Circular to AutHORs In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the fol-lowing excerpts from the Circular to Authors. The field is the unit in this tabulation. In cases of fields extending across State boundaries, such as Rodessa, it is suggested that each State author treat the section of the field in his State as a unit, and by a footnote indicate that the field extends into an adjacent State. Each space in Table I may represent one of four possibilities; either it is not applicable to the particular field, or the proper entry is not determinable, or the proper entry may be determinable but is not determinable from data available to the author, or the proper entry is determinable. When spaces are not applicable, leave blank; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable but not de-terminable from data available to the author, please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author, make such entries. y implies a hope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. The entry of a zero is a positive declaration, and an important declaration where it is in order. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entry need not be hedged to such extent as when the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. It is thought that the nearest whole numbers are sufficiently accurate for our purposes except as to percentage of sulphur in oil. If an author desires to report any other figures to tenths, he may do so. The quantity of gas produced should include, where possible, gas sold or otherwise marketed, and gas blown into the air, burned as flares or otherwise wasted. Segregation of these figures would be interesting if the authors can make such segregation. In any event, the figures should represent as nearly as possible the total quantity of gas removed from the reservoir.. Under the columns on "Depth," the average depth to the top of the productive zones and to the bottom of the productive wells, when

Jan 1, 1942

By Basil B. Zavoico

The symposium on production for the year 1942 contains no papers on the foreign situation except those on Argentina and Mexico. It has always been the policy of officers in charge of the symposium to refrain from publishing information that might possibly injure national or private interests. At the close of the war we hope again to publish full and accurate records of production abroad. Excerpts From Circular to Authors In order to facilitate interpretation of the data in this chapter, we print the following excerpts from the Circular to Authors. The field is the unit in this tabulation. In cases of fields extending across State boundaries, such as Rodessa, it is suggested that each State author treat the section of the field in his State as a unit, and by a footnote indicate that the field extends into an adjacent State. Each space in Table I may represent one of four possibilities; either it is not applicable to the particular field, or the proper entry is not determinable, or the proper entry may be determinable but is not determinable from data available to the author, or the proper entry is determinable. When spaces are not applicable, leave blank; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable but not determinable from data available to the author, please insert y; in spaces where the proper entries are determinable by the author, make such entries. y implies a Rope that in some future year a definite figure will be available. The entry of a zero is a positive declaration, and it is an important declaration where it is in order. Inability to determine precisely the correct entry for a particular space should not lead the author to insert merely y. Contributions of great value may be made by the author in many cases where entries are not subject to precise determination. In such cases the author should use his good judgment and make the best entry possible under the circumstances. For many spaces the correct entries represent the opinion of the author (for example, "Area Proved") and in such cases the entry need not be hedged to such extent as when the quantities are definite yet can be ascertained only approximately by the author. In cases under definite headings but where figures are only approximate, the author may use x. It is thought that the nearest whole numbers are sufficiently accurate for our purposes except as to percentage of sulphur in oil. If an author desires to report any other figures to tenths, he may do so. The quantity of gas produced should include, where possible, gas sold or otherwise marketed, and gas blown into the air, burned as flares or otherwise wasted. Segregation of these figures would be interesting if the authors can make such segregation. In any event, the figures should represent as nearly as possible the total quantity of gas removed from the reservoir. Under the columns on "Depth," the average depth to the top of the productive zones and to the bottom of the productive wells, when subtracted, should give the approximate thickness of the productive zone. For fields where this is not true because of unusually high dip or for some other reasons, it is suggested that the authors indicate in their text the approximate average thickness of the productive zone.

Jan 1, 1943

By J. C. Fisher

Martensite transformations in steels and other alloys are characterized in part by the absence of composition changes during the growth of a new phase. Transformation occurs rapidly, and there is insufficient time for long range diffusion or partition of alloying elements to take place; martensite reactions in alloys thus are similar to phase transformations in single component systems. A fundamental understanding of martensite transformations in steels is impossible without knowledge of the free energy change upon transforming austenite (face centered cubic iron containing alloying elements) to ferrite (body centered cubic iron containing alloying elements) of the same chemical composition. The present paper assembles the best information available concerning the influence of temperature and composition on this free energy change. Most of the material has been taken from the work of Johansson,' Mehl and Wells,2 Zener3,4 and Smith;5 and indirectly, through these authors, from the work of Austin.6 In agreement with the generally accepted viewpoint, martensite is assumed to be an ordered solution of carbon in ferrite of the same composition as the parent austenite; only at high temperatures and low carbon concentrations is the carbon in ferrite distributed at random. The properties of the disordered solution are estimated by extrapolating the known properties of iron-carbon solid solutions into the range of supersaturation, and the free energy change associated with ordering is estimated from the theory developed by Zener. By incorporating Smith's recent thermodynamic measurements and Zener's theory of ordering, the present analysis modifies previous estimates of the free energy change associ- ated with martensite transformations. Consider a two component system consisting of a solvent A and a solute B. Let Na and Nb represent mol fractions of A and B respectively, let aa = raNa and ab = YbNb represent activities, and let superscripts 1 and 2 refer to phases 1 and 2. The partial molal free energies of A and B in phases 1 and 2 can be summarized as follows: free energy standard state Fa' - Fao1 = RT In an1 pure A' Fa2 - Fa2 = RT In aa2 pure A2 Fb1 - Fbo = RT In ab1 pure B Fs2 - FB2 = RT In aB2 pure B. The free energy of a gram atom of phase 1 is* AF1 = Na'Fa1 + Nb'Fb1 and that of phase 2 is AF2 = NA2FA2 + NB2Fb2. A martensite transformation from phase 1 to phase 2 requires Na1 = Na2 = Na and NB1 = NB2 = Nb, and the free energy change per gram atom accompanying transformation is AFi-2 = NA(Fa2 - Fa1) + Nb(Fb2 - Fb1) = NA[RT In (aA2/aA1) + AFa1?2] + Nb RT In (aB2/aB1) = Na[RT In (ra2/ra1) + AFa1?2] + Nb RT In (TaVTB1). [1] where yn2, yn1, yB2, yB1 are activity coefficients, and where Ma'+* is the free energy change upon transforming a gram atom of pure A from phase 1 to phase 2 at the temperature in question. For martensite transformations in plain carbon steels, A = iron (Fe), B = carbon (C), 1 = austenite (7). 2 = ferrite (a), and Eq 1 is AFr ?a= NFe[RT In (rf.a/rfer) + AFF.r?a] + TVc RT In (eca/rc1)- L2] Nothing is known concerning the values of yFea and yca for carbon concen- , trations in excess of 0.025 pct. However, the approximation rf.7 = 7f." = 1 cannot be appreciably in error for small carbon concentrations, and Eq 2 reduces to Afr-a = NfeFfer?a1 + NC RT In (rca/rcr)- [3] Johanssonl and Zenera have calculated MFfr?a from the specific heat measurements compiled by Austin.6* Their calculated values agree closely, and are summarized in Table 1. The activity coefficients relative to graphite for carbon dissolved in iron vary with temperature according to the relationships d In rcr/d(1/T) = AHcr-R dlnyca/d(l/T) = AHCa/R where AHc? and AHca are the heats of solution of graphite in y and a iron. Assuming the values of AH to be independent of carbon concentration and temperature, In rCr = AHcr/RT + I1 In rca = AHCa/RT + 12

Jan 1, 1950

By W. A. James

NATURE endowed the Niagara Frontier with great resources but it was the molding of these resources by the early pioneers that assured its future development. This great industrial district of New York stretches along about fifty miles of shore line on the eastern end of Lake Erie and the Niagara River, embracing the two counties of Erie and Niagara, with the city of Buffalo about in the center. This location at the junction of the eastern end of the Great Lakes and the western boundary of the State, a great focal point of land and water, transportation, guaranteed the development of the Frontier. Although the first white settlers came to this section in 1784, it was not until after the turn of the nineteenth century that real development started. Perhaps the most significant influence in the early days was the completion of the Erie Canal between Buffalo and Albany in 1825. This then monumental achievement gave Buffalo an advantage in the race for the best trade route to the Western

Jan 1, 1938

By H. M. Wilten

THIS article presets a view of a problem encountered in petroleum refining in the deterioration of equipment used in condensation of vapors and cooling of liquids. Discussion is limited to the problems of shell- and tube-type exchangers and condensers. In this service shell- and .tube-type equipment is gradually displacing other types and, for this reason, its economic importance ill oil-refining practice is also increasing. Considering oil - refinery practice during the last two decades one can readily see many important improvements in the apparatus used. Briefly, the present equipment is safer, more efficient, and Ignore economical. Improvement in apparatus used for the condensation of distillates has, in my opinion, been less than that in other essential distilling apparatus. So it is hoped that this discussion will stimulate research among the producers as well as among the consumers of this equipment with a view to ameliorating this condition.

Jan 1, 1937

By George S. Rice

GROUND movement and subsidence is an important matter from several points of view and it is regrettable that more papers have not been written on this subject in the past year. Damage may be done to surface buildings or to the higher workings of a mine, and a study of the subject gives valuable in- formation on hanging-wall or roof control. The latter objective is strikingly shown in a recent paper presented by Jack Spaulding on Oct. 21, 1937, before the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, of Great Britain, entitled "Theory and Practice of Ground Control in the Kolar Gold Field, India." All may not agree with some of his theories that were deduced from studies of the many violent rock bursts at depths of 5000 to 7000 ft., but the data obtained are of great value. His theories of symmetrical ring stresses and symmetrical domes which are pictured as perfect are rather hard to understand as such uniformity is un- likely in view of the irregularities in the formation due to folds and fractures of various kinds. All will agree in principle with this idea of domal effects, which have been observed in many countries, but they are generally irregular.

Jan 1, 1938

By Donald M. Liddell, G. C. RIDDELL

THE cosmic ray continues to engage the attention of the physicists, and according to Millikan and Compton, experiments of the past summer indicate that these rays must come from interstellar space, but not from the stars themselves. According to press reports of the International Congress of Physicists at Rome, the view was given there that these rays have an initiating potential of over 750,000.000 volts. In the field of spectrographic investigation great strides have been made. The U. S. Naval Research Laboratories (R. F. Mehl and G. E. Doan of Lehigh) have just finished a year's work with a "radium torch" or "shadowgraphic apparatus" in the field of the X-ray, that bids fair to displace the latter to a great extent. The torch is more powerful., easier to operate and cheaper. Penetration of 10 in. of steel has been accomplished, which. is much -beyond the- -scope-, of the X-ray..

Jan 1, 1932

By A. Lee Barrett

AN accelerated trend toward mechanical mining was noted in 1940, calling for improvements in and better performance of transportation, hoisting, and ventilating equipment. One of the most interesting experi¬ments in transportation is the track shuttle-car operation first put into use by the Princeton Mining Co. in Indiana and later at the Montour 4 mine of the Pittsburgh Coal Co. This system is based on the use of 10-ton drop-bottom mine cars operating on track and han¬dled by an ordinary gathering loco¬motive. These mine cars are loaded and taken in trips of two to a central dumping station which serves four or less loading machines. The dumping station consists of two standard chain-and-flight room conveyors, approximately 50 ft. long placed side by side approximately 4 ft. below the track from which the drop-bottom cars are dumped. These conveyors are operated at low speed and discharge into two similar elevating conveyors which operate at a higher speed and convey the coal to a trip of standard mine cars. A dumping station is usually located so that approximately 500,000 tons of coal may be handled through it before a move is required. This plan appears to have considerable possibilities for the mine equipped with small mine cars and standard locomotives since the advantages of large mine cars can be secured at a fraction of the cost required to install such cars throughout the mine. It appears logical that the future will see a much wider use of this modification in transportation.

Jan 1, 1941

By R. E. H. Pomeroy

EARLY in 1917, it became evident, owing to existing and pending market conditions, that a substitute for crude petroleum must be found for firing the smelter furnaces. After a review of the plants then existing, it was deemed advisable to depart from their practice and to adopt the following described system of distributing pulverized coal to the furnaces. The principal advantages of the proposed system, which influenced this decision, were: (1) Equal safety; no pulverized coal is stored at the furnaces; (2) greater ease of operation, furnace fires being controlled by regulating valves in burner branches, as in gas firing; (3) better organization; all machinery, including pulverized coal feed, is under one roof, and the organization is separate from the furnace department; (4) greater cleanliness; all machinery is under vacuum; (5) greater flexibility of application; the coal and air mixture can be piped where needed. The design of the plant is the result of the combined efforts of the local engineering staff and of the machinery manufacturers. Many new features were embodied in this design to insure greater safety, cleanliness, and efficiency of handling. After 14 months of continuous operation, the plant has proved entirely satisfactory. The building is of structural steel, covered with corrugated steel, with many windows and is painted light gray inside and out. The building floor is of concrete with ample drains to the sewer, and the building is equipped with fire and service water piping. Fig. 1 shows the east side of the building and the incline conveyor from the raw-coal bins.

Jan 2, 1920

By N. V. Hansell

l. INTRODUCTION. THE last few years have shown an increasing interest in the subject of beneficiating iron-ores -in all iron-producing countries. In the United States, this movement has been slower than in certain parts of Europe, for the obvious reason that the abundance and relative cheapness of the Lake Superior iron ores has hindered the development of enterprises for the preparation of low-grade ores. Gradually, however, conditions have changed. The world's consumption of iron is increasing enormously. Being in 1900 about 40,000,000 tons, in 1910 ii was already 60,000000; and there is no reason to doubt that for the near future the increase in iron-consumption will continue at the same rapid rate, especially with, the development of China, certain parts of Africa, and other regions which have hardly been touched as yet by modern industrialism. It is. therefore, not surprising that apprehension is felt that the known available iron-ore resources of the world are gradually being depleted. Signs of this feeling are the recent investigation, under the direction of the U. S. Geological Survey, of the iron-ore resources of the United States, and the estimate presented to the last International Geological Congress, at Stockholm, Sweden, of the iron-ore resources of the world. These investigations have emphasized the fact that the known high-grade ore-deposits are limited in extent, and will, at a not distant future, be exhausted, compelling the iron industry to depend for raw material on the enormous deposits of low-grade ores which are distributed over almost all the world. The discovery of new deposits of high-grade ore, in countries not yet thoroughly explored, will not materially change this prospect. Of course, the part which such new deposits will play in the future cannot be forecast. The difficulty and cost of transportation will probably exclude many of them from use at the present centers of the iron industry.

May 1, 1912

By V. H. Wilhelm

WITH rapidly diminishing oil reserves: a great percentage of which are uneconomical at present prices, some of the existing methods of development and production will have to undergo radical re- visions to meet the changes continually taking place in the petroleum industry. Imagination in an engineer is a great asset. The fancy of today is found to be the realization of tomorrow, and with this thought in mind, there is here presented a more or less imaginative picture which, to my mind, has a meritorious basis. Directed drilling has reached a stage of accuracy sufficient to allow the prediction that this art will be used in the future development of oil structures, especially those \\,it11 thin sand bodies 'and steep dips. Directional drilling in a number of fields in California has gratifying results. Wells which practically laid pipe lines through the oil sands have enjoyed a greater drainage radius with a consequent greater initial and cumulative production. In one field where the vertical thickness of sands was approximately 550 ft., wells drifting at an angle as great as 55 deg. fro111 vertical had over 1100 ft. of perforated pipe in contact with these sands. These wells were, and are, remarkable for their great initial pro-

Jan 1, 1936

By Michael M. Maier, Charles B. Brumleve

The Henderson mine uses the panel caving method to extract molybdenum ore from a deep ore body in an igneous intrusive. Research into caving mechanics and its related problems has yielded fundamental relationships concerning the response of a stressed rock mass to the caving method. The relationships studied through a variety of programs include the following: the evaluation of time and distance related stress fields; the monitoring of the deformation of underground openings and the design implications; ground and mining sequence classifications compared to past support requirements; the response of finite rock masses to zones of high stress concentrations; the evaluation of the subsidence induced by caving; and the microseismic monitoring of cave growth. The cumulative objective of this research is to better understand, predict, and control rock mass response.

Jan 1, 1981

Jan 3, 1951

By Young C. Kim, Francis Martino, Ish Chopra

For the past two and one-half years, various emission control strategies were jointly developed by the University of Arizona and the Homer City Owners to com- ply with the clean air requirements at its Homer City Power Plant. Some of the available options for the SO2 emission control by the Homer City Owners were:l)cleaning of run-of-mine coal,2) scheduling of mining operations at its captive mines, 3) blending the captive mine coal with externally purchased low sulfur coa1,and 4) placing a partial FGD system. This paper describes two specific emission control strategies developed and implemented. These are: 1) production scheduling at the mining face to minimize sulfur variability, and 2) external purchasing of low sulfur coal for further blending. The main objective of this paper is to share our experiences on implementing the developed strategies. This paper emphasizesthe need for proper mine planning on a short-term basis, if the power plant is to meet the desired objective.

Jan 1, 1983