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By C. G. Dunn, E. F. Koch, K. T. Aust

Strain-induced grain boundary migration was studied in a series of silicon-iron (3% pct Si) bicrystals of controlled orientations. Each bicrystal was given a 7 pct cold-rolling strain rind annealed at 1100°C. The direction of boundary migration was found to depend on orientation; results for several orientations related by a common [110] axis are given. Analysis of the micrographic and X-ray data is made in terms of the residual strain-energy densities within the crystals (energy per unit volurne) and a driving force on the boundary due to an energy density difference across the boundary. Relative strain energies were obtained for the various orientations investigated. A CHROME-acetic acid electroetching method for revealing dislocation sites in silicon iron was previously applied to clarify the structural features and the energetics involved in strain-induced grain boundary migration.',' The present paper is a continuation of this study, but is primarily concerned with the influence of crystal orientation. Sperry, as reported by Beck,3 attempted to determine the factors that influence the preferred growth of one grain over another in aluminum due to strain-induced boundary migration. He found that the particular grain of a pair which work hardened more was invaded, although exceptions to this correlation were noted. The index of work hardening was determined from microhardness measurements of each grain before and after cold-rolling. In the present study, orientation itself was taken as a useful variable for studying the behavior of individual grains in a bicrystal and the direction of boundary migration, since the extent of work hardening is orientation dePendent." The effect of strain on boundary migration is evident from a consideration of driving forces. Thus, in the absence of inclusions, the driving force (per unit area of boundary) for growth of grain A into grain B when a bicrystal is strained and annealed may be expressed as follows:2

Jan 1, 1960

By F. S. Jr. Norcross

MANGANESE has long been considered one of the United States' most important strategic raw materials. Its indispensabil-ity in steel manufacture makes it vital to the nation's industrial life. Coupled with this indispensability is the fact that domes-tic producers have not been able as yet to supply more than a small part of the nation's manganese needs; consequently the United States has had to depend upon such distant foreign sources as the U.S.S.R., British India, the African Gold Coast and Brazil for the major portion of its ore. The great bulk of the mineral is con-sumed in the form of ferromanganese, an alloy that averages 8o per cent manganese and 20 per cent mainly iron and carbon. Manganese is used as a deoxidizer and desulphurizer in steel manufacture. By combination with the residual oxygen and sulphur of the bath, it helps to produce a clean, sound metal. Approximately 14 lb. of manganese, it is estimated, is used in making one ton of steel. For standard-grade ferromanganese, the ore should have a minimum of about 48 per cent Mn and preferably more. Beneficiation methods have not yet been developed for making the immense low-grade deposits in the United States salable at prevail-ing prices.

Jan 1, 1940

Jan 1, 1902

AGGLOMERATION U.S. 4,067,727 - In the sintering of a charge of iron oxide ore, a fuel and a flux on a travelling grate machine, the dust problem is minimized by providing a plurality of cooling zones and by directing heated dust-laden air from a first cooling zone to the sintering zone wherein the dust is filtered from the air by the material being sintered. Air from a further cooling zone can be exhausted directly to the atmosphere. Dust removal in the cooling zone is improved by using a purging zone in which higher pressure air agitates the dust in the sintered material. This patent is a division of U.S. Patent No. 3,973,762, dated Aug. 10, 1976. F. Cappel, assigned to Dravo Corp. Jan. 10, 1978. 6 pp. (75-5). Filed: 4-1-76 (672,748).

Jan 1, 1979

AS IS evident from the discussion in previous chapters, the methods by which an open-hearth heat may be made are numerous, but any heat, in the ingot form, may be classified as one of three types, depending upon the degree of deoxidation to which the metal is subjected. These are rimmed, semikilled, and killed, and desirable ingot structures, from the standpoint of distribution of porosity, are illustrated in Fig. 63. These are the most useful types of ingot structure [ ] and represent three stages in the continuous series from "wild" to "dead killed" (see Fig. 23, page 46) ; some of the variations of each type are discussed later in the chapter. The choice of ingot structure and of finishing practice used to produce the desired metal action in the molds is determined by consideration of: 1. Specified final analysis. As an example, the production of rimmed steels is mostly limited to carbon contents below 0.30 per cent and manganese contents below 0.60 per cent; on the other hand the production of low-carbon killed steel requires greater care.

Jan 1, 1944

ALABAMA Altoona.-Cain, J. America.-Foreman, J. T. Anniston.-Cowie, L. K. Foster, R. N. Rogers, R. F. White, H. E. Ashland.-Sturdevant, J. C. Bessemer. Ball, E. M. McKenzie. W. C., Jr. Morgan, C. Birmingham.-Abbott, C. E. Adler, J. E. Aldrich, T. H. Aldrich, T. H., Jr. Ashton, J. J. Burgin, G. E.

Jan 1, 1923

Jan 8, 1951

Jan 1, 1910

By M. H. Harris

A solution has been obtained to the problem of calculating flow into a cased and perforated well. Equations describing the idealized system were solved by numerical analysis techniques on a high-speed digital computer. Computer experimentation indicated that the results are within 3 per cent of the exact solution. Computed results are presented as an apparent skin effect, on a series of dimensionless working curves. Productivity ratios can be rapidly calculated from these data for the wide range of wellbore and reservoir properties actually encountered in field practice. Any reasonable vertical unisotropy ratio can be included in the computation. Productivities can be calculated for wells perforated in a regular pattern, a single horizontal plane or a vertical line on one side of the casing. Solutions for asymmetrical perforation patterns can he easily obtained from the working curves. Solutions for flow into sells completed with a horizontal notch are also provided. Results show that productivity can be increased by extending perforation penetration. This is especially true for shallow penetrations. The highest productivity is obtained when perforations are arranged in horizontal planes, as opposed to a vertical line on one side of the casing. Four or five perforations in one plane will approach the maximum productivity. The effect of perforation hole diameter is small, and is rioticeable only in shallow penetrations. INTRODUCTION The perforating method of well completion has been successfully and widely used in most producing areas. In the past, the desired perforation results were achieved by simply shooting numerous large holes in the casing. A perforating scheme for an area, or particular well, was established by evaluating two types of experimental data: the well flow index and the productivity ratio.' 3 The well flow index test is a means of determining the relative flow capacity of perforations in a linear system. This test also gives information on the perforation size, shape and hole damage which can be expected under well-bore conditions. However, relative flow data from this test cannot be accurately tarnsformed into the radial wellbore system. Thus, no true indication of the productive capacity of a perforated well can be obtained from the well flow index test. A well productivity ratio is derived from electrolytic models built to simulate perforated wells. Available productivity ratio data 2,3 are limited in that all important variables are not extensively evaluated. For example, data are limited to well radii of 3 and 6 in., and to maximum perforation penetration of 1 ft. Practically no information is available on the pattern of flow into a perforation. The effect of various perforation patterns on well productivity has not yet been determined and the effect of perforation diameter has not been thoroughly studied. Also, it will be shown that this type of electrolytic model data is probably in error by as much as 10 per cent or more. Modern completion techniques such as limited-entry perforating, single-plane fracturing, steam and hot air injection and chemical consolidation of incompetent formations all rely on injection and/or production from a limited type of completion. These completions may consist of several high-capacity perforations or a horizontal notch which is equivalent to an infinite number of perforations in one plane. Proper design of these new completion techniques requires, in part, accurate estimates of a well's productive capacity. Data on perforated and notched well productivity have been determined in this investigation. Results are presented as a function of the pertinent variables. Equations describing the idealized system were solved by numerical analysis techniques on a high-speed digital computer. DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM PRACTICAL APPLICATION The computed results can be applied to wells which meet several general specifications. An external drainage radius of the well must be known or assumed, but the well need not be drilled on a regular pattern. The well must be cased and cemented through the entire producing interval. And, the casing must be perforated with one or more horizontal planes of perforations. The perforation pattern itself must conform to three geometrical requirements. 1. The perforations in a plane must divide the plane into equal angular segments (Fig. 1). Four perforations per plane would be 90" apart. 2. Perforations in a plane must be directly above or beneath perforations in adjacent planes. For two shots per plane, perforations would lie in the BB' plane (Fig. 1). 3. Horizontal planes must have equal vertical spacing and be separated from the top and bottom of the formation by one half the spacing interval. Single planes of perforations should be in the middle of the formation. This is shown in Fig. 2 where h is the formation thickness in a single plane conlpletion or the spacnig interval in a multiple plane completion. The spacing interval at the top and bottom of the formation may vary somewhat without causing an appreciable error in the productivity calculation if the formation is reasonably thick and there are many horizontal planes of perforations. A special provision has been made to calculate the productivity ratios of wells with uneven spacing intervals, or for the case where a single plane of perfora-

Jan 1, 1967

By J. R. Low, M. Gensamer, W. T. Lankford

THE problem of sheet metal formability is one which has received a vast amount of attention during recent years. In spite of the great amount of study and experimental work which has been devoted to this problem, many of its fundamental aspects are still not well understood. No generally satisfactory test has been developed which is capable of providing a reasonably adequate evaluation of sheet metal formability, particularly in borderline cases. Anomalies persistently arise in which a lot of supposedly satisfactory material exhibits excessive breakage when formed. This lack of suitable technological tests greatly hinders the design of new parts and the substitution of new materials in parts of existing design, frequently necessitating considerable costly trial and error experimentation on an actual production basis. When, at the beginning of World War II, it became apparent that mass production methods of forming would be required in the aircraft industry if the large numbers of military aircraft needed were to be supplied, renewed attention was focussed on the problem of sheet metal formability. It was widely recognized that the formability requirements placed on sheet metals had been steadily increasing in severity through the years, especially as greater and greater emphasis was placed on streamlined designs with the resultant freer application of doubly curved surfaces. The recent advent of several new high strength aluminum alloys of more limited formability than some of the older alloys also served to emphasize the need for new approaches to the problem. It seemed evident that progress in the technology of sheet metal forming would depend to a great extent on the development of more reliable criteria for the evaluation of formability. Although the problem is admittedly very complex, the most logical approach appeared to be through studies of the fundamental material properties of sheet metals, especially under complex stress conditions simulating those prevailing in actual forming operations. Most previous investigations have failed to make full use of existing knowledge of fundamental material properties, and in many instances have attempted correlations with properties which are now recognized as being ambiguous in nature. This investigation was undertaken, therefore, with the aim of developing methods for the study of the flow and fracture of sheet metals under combined stresses, and of making use of such methods as might be developed in

Jan 1, 1947

By A. G. Worthing

Black: Bodies.-In the ordinary conception, a black object is an opaque object that reflects but little of the light that is incident on it. This means naturally that such an object is a good absorber of luminous radiation. The black body; which is so closely connected with high-temperature measurements, represents the limit in blackness of all black objects. It is a body that not only absorbs all visible radiations but also all other radiations in the infra-red and the ultra-violet regions of the spectrum which are incident on it. No substance is known that is completely black; platinum black, one of the nearest if not the nearest representative of the ideal, reflects 1 per cent. or so of ordinary visible radiation. The closest approach to the ideal is a small opening in the wall of a relatively large opaque cavity. Any radiation incident on this black body will be almost completely absorbed if the relative dimensions are properly chosen no matter what the material may be. The great difference between the blackness of such a cavity and of lampblack, for instance, will be apparent to one who makes the simple test. Non-black Bodies.-The field of non-black bodies covers all real bodies. Their characteristics are extremely varied. So far as absorption of radiation-is concerned, these bodies range practically from the almost completely black, platinum-black, and lampblack, which absorb all but a fractional part of 1 per cent. or so of the incident radiation, by an infinite variety of steps to freshly polished silver, which ordinarily absorbs only a few per cent. The exact percentage absorbed depends not only on the nature of the incident radiation, but also on the temperature of the body, the condition of its surface, the angle of incidence, the nature of the surrounding medium, and on certain other less important conditions. As consequences of these varied characteristics, we have not only the differences of color of ordinary objects, but also the changes of color that any one object undergoes on heating or when lighted front various directions. This complexity of the phenomena, in a way, is responsible for the meagerness of knowledge, regarding materials at elevated temperatures. Measurement of High Temperatures.-Excepting in cases where the thermocouple or the gas thermometer are applicable, in which case the temperatures obtained are true temperatures regardless of-the material" studied, high, temperatures are almost always, if not always, determined from measurements of radiation. In fact, determinations of temperature from this latter point of view are often so much more convenient than the thermocouple and especially the gas-thermometer determinations that, in the region where all of these types of measurements may be made, the radiation measurements are often preferred. This is true even though the temperatures usually thus directly determined are not the actual temperatures, a consequence of the sources of the radiation being non-black bodies; in other words, a consequence of being concerned with iron, or glass, or tungsten instead of small openings leading to relatively large-cavities uniformly heated. Coordination of Experimental Results.-In order that data on iron, glass, tungsten, or other non-black bodies obtained in one laboratory, may be, correlated with similar data obtained elsewhere, temperatures must be expressed on a common scale. The true temperature scale is the natural scale for this purpose it is ordinarily the scale to which all other temperatures can be most directly reduced. When the measurements depend on the radiation, a knowledge of emissive powers repre-

Jan 9, 1919

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Jan 1, 1938

By Henry S. Drinker

The Musconetcong tunnel is situated in New Jersey, near the line of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, about twelve miles from Easton, on the Easton and Amboy Railroad, the latter being the extension of the Lehigh Valley Railroad to tide-water. Up to the present time, the terminus of the Lehigh Valley Railroad has been at Phillipsburg, N. J., opposite Easton, passengers connecting there with New York by the Morris and Essex (D. L. and W.) and New Jersey Central lines; freight and coal being forwarded by the Morris and Essex to tide-water at Hoboken, and by the Central Railroad to Elizabethport and Port Johnson ; also, by the Belvidere and Delaware connections through Trenton to South Amboy.

By Henry S. Drinker

THE Musconetcong tunnel is situated in New Jersey, near the line of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, about twelve miles from Easton, on the Easton and Amboy Railroad, the latter being the extension of the Lehigh Valley Railroad to tide-water. Up to the present time, the terminus of the Lehigh Valley Railroad has been at Phillipsburg, N. J., opposite Easton, passengers connecting there with New York by the Morris and Essex (D. L. and W.) and New Jersey Central lines; freight and coal being forwarded by the Morris and Essex to tide-water at Hoboken, and by the Central Railroad to Elizabethport and Port Johnson ; also, by the Belvidere and Delaware connections through Trenton to South Amboy.

Jan 1, 1875

By George Bain

SOME problems concomitant with commercial exploitation of marble are presented as examples of interesting, useful and profitable fields for application of scientific knowledge. The marble industry is only one such field and is selected because its varying new aspects are familiar to the author. However, what is true for marble is equally so in principle for many industrial minerals. The problems of any stone industry are to maintain markets, create new outlets for stone already in demand, and develop varied uses for varieties that are not so popular. Here the geologist has a different role from most of his colleagues in metal mining. The producing branch may ask about the expectable variation in thickness or size of a deposit as development proceeds. The stock department may call for the available amount of a given type of stone before accepting a large order. The sales force requires data on the use for stone from certain parts of deposits in order to divert grades to the most suitable use. The service depart-ment wants defects rectified and the cause determined to avoid recurrence. The mills want data on durability and cutting quality of abrasives. The geologist occupies no special department; he is on general call, as may be illustrated by a few types of problems that may be classified as: (1) dominantly geological in character, (2) dominantly chemical in character, (3) dominantly physical in character.

Jan 1, 1940

By J. O. CHESLEY

CURRENT widespread applications of aluminum in such industries as transportation, mining, and construction would have amazed the early proponents of its use, including Napoleon III, French Emperor Batik ill the middle nineteenth century, when aluminum was a precious metal, Napoleon had visions of making his army light and mobile through the use of aluminum for gun carriages, helmets, canteens, sabers, and similar articles. Whereas the emperor failed in his objectives, the modern Napoleons of industry have .been successful, and today aluminum finds its greatest applications wherever there is mass ill motion. Its lightness has made possible such modern marvels as the Union Pacific streamline trains, the Boeing and Douglas giant airships, and up-to-date mining equipment such as the new Calumet and Hecla mine skips.

Jan 1, 1938

By J. S. Hegwer, P. M. Dunlap

An improved acid for the treatrrzent of sulfate-con-raining limestones and dolomites is described. The acid is designed to reduce he reprecipitation of dissolved calcium sulfate and the possibility of plugging permeable flow channels. In addition, this improved acid has a much lower reaction rate than that of regular acid; the advantages of a "retarded" acid are obtainable. Field testing of the acid has shown it suitable for use in sulfate-containing formations. Substantial improvements in productivity generally resulted. INTRODUCTION Acid treatments of limestones, dolomites and other formations bearing carbonate deposits are frequently unsuccessful when the calcareous formation contains sulfate, either as anhydrite (CaSO,) or gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O). Preliminary dissolution in acid followed by redeposition of calcium sulfate appears to be a major factor contributing to poor well performance after acidizing. The precipitate is usually the gypsum form of calcium sulfate, but in higher temperature formations it may be anhydrite. The freshly precipitated crystals are nearly always very small and needle-like. They may occupy a gross volume many times that of the original anhydrite crystals and will obviously constitute an impediment to flow through newly enlarged flow channels. It is believed that the redeposition problem is most severe when anhydrite lines the fracture systems and large pores which supply the effective permeability of a formation. Microscopic inclusions of calcium sulfate also present large sulfate surface areas for dissolution in acid. In either case, great amounts of calcium sulfate may dissolve before the acid can be spent on formation carbonates. For regular spent acid (originally 15 per cent hydrochloric acid) the precipitate could be as much as 270 Ib gypsum/1000 gal acid. Two techniques have been applied by the industry for reducing sulfate plugging during acidizing. The method'.' commonly employed in the field is the attempted removal of a quantity of regular treating acid before it has reacted completely with the formation. This is practiced because the solubility of calcium sulfate is greater in a solution that is still acidic than in one which has been largely spent on the formation rock. The chance of precipitative plugging is therefore reduced if the withdrawal is successful. However, it is often impossible to get the acid out of the formation before precipitation occurs. A second possible method, which at first glance appears practical, involves addition to the acid of sequestering agents which form strong soluble complexes with calcium ions. These chemicals do increase the "solubility" of calcium sulfate in fresh acid, but to a lesser extent in spent acid. The sequestering agents have, therefore, proved unsatisfactory because the amount of sulfate eventually deposited from the spent acid may be greater than that from regular acid. Another logical approach to the problem of calcium sulfate reprecipitation is the prevention of the initial dissolution of calcium sulfate by the common ion effect. This may be accomplished by adding a soluble calcium salt to the fresh acid. The use of calcium salts in treating acids is not entirely new. An earlier suggested use of a soluble calcium salt in hydrochloric acid apparently failed to recognize the full extent to which the solubility of calcium sulfate could be suppressed. The present study extends this earlier work and adds certain improvements toward the development of a practical anti-anhydrite acid. LABORATORY DEVELOPMENT Calcium Sulfate Solubility Table 1 shows the results of a laboratory study performed to establish the effect of calcium chloride concentration on gypsum solubility. Because of the strong tendency of calcium sulfate to form supersaturated solutions, accurate solubilities are difficult to determine. These solubility data probably are reliable to within ± 15 per cent. The solubility of calcium sulfate in 15 weight per cent hydrochloric acid increases with increasing temperature. This trend is also followed in hydrochloric acid which cantains calcium chloride. This is contrary to the solubility behavior of calcium sulfate in water, wherein the solubility decreases with increasing temperature.

By Gilbert E. Doan, William C. Schulte

An extensive program of investigation is being carried out at Lehigh University in the study of arcs and arc welds of high-purity iron1, sponsored by the Engineering Foundation. The part of that program reported in the present paper deals with welds made of high-purity iron in an argon atmosphere and for comparison with them welds made of the same iron in ordinary air. Welds of commercial steel also were made in argon and in air. The primary purpose of the study is to discover the basic physical constants of iron welds when not contaminated either by impurities in the iron or by the action of oxygen and nitrogen of the air during welding. Upon these constants can be founded such future studies as will determine what effects the various impurities and alloy elements present in steel have upon its welding characteristics, and what influence is exerted by the action of oxygen and nitrogen. The welding of steel involves such a multitude of variables, both of composition and of procedure, that development in the fabrication of this most important metal has necessarily been slow, wasteful, and in many instances discouraging. In the present investigation, the simplest possible condition has been selected; namely, iron practically free from contamination and a nonparticipating atmosphere, the inert gas argon. This simplification reduces the number of variables to a point where more rigid control of the system is possible. Although this study is significant for the contributions it makes to the science of steel fabrication, yet it is hoped that it will not be without value also in increasing knowledge of the. nature and behavior of iron and steel in general. From the standpoint of open-hearth practice, and to some extent from the standpoint of electric-furnace practice also, the conditions of melting and casting iron in this investigation are extraordinary. The casting temperature is high, the mean temperature of the metal probably reaching 2000' C. (3600' F.)? The rate of chilling of

Jan 1, 1936

By Clair Upthegrove, E. S. Rowland

The widespread interest in the alloys of beryllium with copper is due principally to the fact that certain compositions show very favorable precipitation-hardening characteristics and are, in fact, the stronges nonferrous alloys known at the present time. Investigations have been conducted by Masing and Dahl and others on the physical characteristics of ternary beryllium alloys, in an attempt to produce precipitation hardening effects with a smaller amount of beryllium than that required in the binary copper-beryllium alloys (2.0 to 2.5 per cent Be). The results of these investigations show that ternary alloys of beryllium with Cu-Sn, Cu-A1 and Cu-Zn, among others, exhibit promising improrcmc~nts in physical properties after precipitation-hardening treatment and, while the increases in properties obtained are not as high as those reahzed from the binary copper-beryllium alloys, excellent properties arc obtaincd with beryllium contents averagirlg about one-half the amount reqnired in the binary alloys. This paper presents the results of an investigation of the equilibriun relations of certain alloys containing copper, tin and beryllium. The alpha-phase boundary of the ternary system is given for alloys containing from 0 to 1 per cent beryllium. The equilibrium conditions beyond the alpha-phase boundary are presented for alloys containing up to 32 per cent tin and 1 per cent beryllium. The data were collected by means of quenching experiments, microscopic examination and thermal analysis The results of some powder-method X-ray determiniations on the alloys, conducted by Mr. William Mikulas and Prof. Lars Thomassen at the University of Michigan, are used as evidence in this paper. The con

Jan 1, 1935

By William C. Schulte, Gilbert E. Doan

An extensive program of investigation is being carried out at Lehigh University in the study of arcs and arc welds of high-purity iron1, sponsored by the Engineering Foundation. The part of that program reported in the present paper deals with welds made of high-purity iron in an argon atmosphere and for comparison with them welds made of the same iron in ordinary air. Welds of commercial steel also were made in argon and in air. The primary purpose of the study is to discover the basic physical constants of iron welds when not contaminated either by impurities in the iron or by the action of oxygen and nitrogen of the air during welding. Upon these constants can be founded such future studies as will determine what effects the various impurities and alloy elements present in steel have upon its welding characteristics, and what influence is exerted by the action of oxygen and nitrogen. The welding of steel involves such a multitude of variables, both of composition and of procedure, that development in the fabrication of this most important metal has necessarily been slow, wasteful, and in many instances discouraging. In the present investigation, the simplest possible condition has been selected; namely, iron practically free from contamination and a nonparticipating atmosphere, the inert gas argon. This simplification reduces the number of variables to a point where more rigid control of the system is possible. Although this study is significant for the contributions it makes to the science of steel fabrication, yet it is hoped that it will not be without value also in increasing knowledge of the. nature and behavior of iron and steel in general. From the standpoint of open-hearth practice, and to some extent from the standpoint of electric-furnace practice also, the conditions of melting and casting iron in this investigation are extraordinary. The casting temperature is high, the mean temperature of the metal probably reaching 2000' C. (3600' F.)? The rate of chilling of

Jan 1, 1936