Search Documents

By T. L. Joseph

THE committee appointed to investigate the application of oxygenated air to the blast' furnace believes, after a careful study of the problem, that this enriched air will increase hearth temperature, tonnage, flexibility of operation, and quality of pig iron made, and that fuel consumption will be decreased. These improvements are supported by theoretical evidence; but a practical trial of the process is necessary to establish more definitely the magnitude of benefits realized. The commercial application, however, may profitably be preceded by a test on a smaller scale. A small furnace will, in general, respond to the enriched air in the same way as a commercial furnace and the magnitude of the benefits to be gained from varying additions of oxygen can be fairly well established at relatively little expense. A new experimental furnace, being built jointly by the Bureau of Mines and the University of Minnesota, at Minneapolis, will have a capacity of about 6 tons and will riot require more than 700 cu. ft. of natural air per minute. Its hearth is 36 in. in diameter and its height about 32 ft. Enough oxygen to enrich the blast to the extent recommended by the committee can be obtained from a small oxygen unit. It might even be cheaper to perform preliminary experiments with tanks of oxygen obtained from regular, dealers. A procedure in making the test that suggests itself is to start with operation on normal air; then to use blast, enriched in several steps. Systematic temperature measurements of the tuyeres, slag, and metal would reveal any changes in hearth temperature. When these changes become large enough, the burden may be gradually increased to just within the breaking point and the furnace brought back to normal, if possible, by the addition of oxygen. Such a test would show what might be expected in the way of a decrease in fuel consumption and the time taken to "straighten up" the furnace by means of oxygen. The new furnace at Minneapolis is so equipped that the furnace process can be observed from the stock line to the iron notch. We have been taking gas samples at various elevations in the furnace to study combustibility of the fuel and the reducing power of the gas. If either of these is affected by removing inert nitrogen, the change can easily be measured.

Jan 11, 1924

By W. F. Stowasser

Robert E. Hagen (Oliver Iron Mining Div., U. S. Steel Corp.)—Mr. Stowasser and his associates are to be congratulated on their achievements in developing the design of a pilot agglomerating plant, based on information obtained from experiments made in a laboratory sinter pot, and subsequently constructing and successfully operating this plant. In his Transactions article, May 1955 (vol. 201) Mr. Stowasser stated that the output of his heat treating strand was about 2 Lt per sq ft of grate area per day and that the fuel consumption was 0.7 to 0.8 million Btu per Lt of product. If it is assumed that the burning zone extends from the back of the ignition furnace to the beginning of the recuperation windbox, only about 1/3 of the grate area over the windboxes is utilized for burning pellets, and the actual rate at which partially dried pellets are burned is about 6 Lt per sq ft of grate area per day. It may be interesting to compare the above operating data with that obtained at the Extaca plant, where taconite concentrate is treated on a conventional sin- tering machine using limestone or hydrated lime additives with no recuperation of heat. The entire windbox area is used for burning, and a production rate of 2.5 Lt per sq ft of windbox area per day has been attained at a fuel consumption of 1.8 to 2.0 million Btu per Lt of product, the latter being considerably in excess of that reported by Mr. Stowasser, partly because a circulating load of returns amounting to 28 to 30 pct of the machine feed is used and because no attempt is made to recuperate heat from the waste gases. With the high capital and labor costs prevailing today, it seems that future development of the downdraft grate pelletizing process should be directed toward taking advantage of the high burning rate of predried pellets and increasing capacity, perhaps at the expense of fuel economy, by decreasing the proportion of grate area utilized by ancillary functions. For example, eliminating the cooling zone and using this area for burning would increase the proportion of grate area available for burning from 33 to 50 pct of the total windbox area, and a proportionate increase in capacity would result.

Jan 1, 1956

By Kendall E. Born

Production of crude oil in Tennessee during 1944 was slightly more than 9500 bbl., about 1300 bbl. more than 1943. Approximately 8000 bbl. was produced from the "Mississippi lime" in Scott and Morgan Counties. Some half dozen wells in Clay, Pickett, and Fentress Counties, pumped intermittently, produced about 1500 bbl. This production is from rocks of Ordovician age ranging in depth from less than 500 ft. to approximately 1000 ft. Natural gas was marketed from wells in Morgan and Fentress Counties for consumption in the Sunbright and Jamestown areas, respectively. The production of oil by counties is shown in Table I. Developments There were 20 completions during 1944 totaling 19,615 ft., nearly twice as much as in 1943. One well was drilling on Dec. 31, 1944. Of the 20 completions, one was a small oil well soon abandoned. Three gas wells were completed which are used locally. The completions are listed in Table 2. The distribution of tests according to physiographic divisions is given in Table 3. Cumberland Plateau There were five completions in the northern part of Cumberland Plateau. One was a small gas well in the Cooper pool 3 miles west of Oneida, but an attempt to extend the pool to the south resulted in a dry hole. The most active area in the state during 1944 was the northern Cumherland Plateau, especially in Cumberland, Morgan, and Scott Counties. Several blocks, aggregating more than 500,000 acres, were assembled and leasing was continuing in the early part of 1945. Surface work has been, or is being, carried on by at least four companies. While in an area of past oil and gas production from the "Mississippi lime," the principal interest appears to be in the essentially unexplored pre-Mississippian possibilities. The Knox dolomite group of Cambro-Ordovician age is receiving some attention as a possible reservoir. As the year closed one well was drilling on a surface structure near Lantana, 6 miles southwest of Cross-ville. This test will be drilled into the upper part of the Knox. Late in 1944, it was planned to lay a gas line from northern Morgan County to Oneida in Scott County, a distance of approximately 20 miles. Middle Tennessee Fifteen wells were drilled in Middle Tennessee. In the northeastern Highland Rim area there were 11 completions, one

Jan 1, 1945

By Arthur B. Foote

The cams at present universally used in stamp mills lift the tappets with an involute form of curve, to which the surface of the tappet is always tangent; moreover, the line of contact between tappet and cam, if produced, would pass through the center of the stem. This is no doubt a desirable feature, but the writer has long believed that it would be much more desirable if the cam were to pick up the stamp without shock, and gradually increase the upward velocity of the stamp throughout its upward movement. The involute form of cam attempts to impart instantly a considerable upward velocity to the stamp, starting it from a state of rest, and the result is a destructive blow, a great deal of noise, and much wear and vibration. The writer has developed a form of cam which will lift the stamp pith a motion similar to that of the piston of an engine between the end and middle of its stroke; in other words, harmonic motion, from the woint of zero to maximum velocity. The curve will give this ideal motion only when the stamp is set for the exact drop for which the cam was designed, but the improved cam will not be as bad as the involute cam until the drop is reduced one-half. In other words, if a cam is designed for a 6-in. drop, it will be some improvement over the usual form of cam until the drop is only 3 in. Any cam, whatever its form, must of course lift the stamp in the same number of degrees of revolution; therefore, with this new form, since the stamp starts more slowly on its upward course, it must end up by going faster, the average speed being the same as with the involute cam. The stamp, after it is no longer in contact with the cam, keeps on going up a certain distance, which is easily calculated. It is therefore possible to hang up a stamp without a cam stick, if the fingers are not more than + in. longer than necessary to hold the tappet above, the cam. With this design of cam the surface of the tappet is not tangent to the surface of the cam throughout the lift. The possible consequences of this were studied with a full-size model, and did not seem serious, as

Jan 1, 1915

By Eugene H. Cowles

The German silver industry of the United States amounts in value to upwards of $6,000,000 or $8,000,000 annually. Several thousands of people earn a livelihood pursuing it, and the beautiful goods and articles manufactured from this time-honored and valued alloy are everywhere visible. German silver enters largely into our street signs, harness and house hardware, and all manner of table-ware, solid or plated. There is scarcely an hour in the day that German or nickel-silver is not before our eyes. The composition of this alloy is a very uncertain thing, and depends largely on the honesty of the manufacturer and the price the purchaser is willing to pay. It is composed of copper, zinc and nickel in varying proportions. The best varieties contain from 18 to 25 per cent. of nickel, and from 20 to 30 per cent. of zinc, the remainder being copper. The more expensive nickel-silver contains from 25 to 33 per cent. of nickel, and from 75 to 66 per cent. of copper. The nickel is used as a whitening element; it also strengthens the alloy and renders it harder and more non-corrodible than the brass made without it, of copper and zinc. Moreover, it reduces the odor emanating from brass, which is so disagreeable if it occurs about the dining-table. Of all troublesome alloys to handle in the foundry or rollingmill, German silver is the worst. It is unmanageable and refractory at every step in its transition from the crude elements into rods, sheets or wire. As a white-headed furnace-man recently said to the writer, in one of our large mills, " you can put eight crucibles into the fire, each containing exactly the same mixture of German silver, and when you take them out and pour them into slabs for rolling, seven will be a mass of scum or slag, or the stuff will swell up like rising bread and overflow the moulds, and be so full of blow-holes that it will look like a sponge. The eighth crucible will contain perfectly good metal. On remelting the next day, the bad stuff will, in nine chances out of ten, come out just as good metal as the eighth pot the day before, and under apparently the same conditions." With nickel at seventy or eighty cents per pound, German silver

Jan 1, 1890

By William Hutton Blauvelt

The type of gas producer in which the ashes are fluxed and run off as slag was among the very earliest made. Ebelmen built the first one in 1840 at Audincourt, France, only a year after the installation of the first gas producer of which we have record. Charcoal was used as the fuel, with blast-furnace slag and clay as flux. My interest in this type of producer began when as a boy I saw the fluxing producer at Chester, N. J., which was invented by W. J. Taylor, and described by him in 1881.' This producer was invented independently by Mr. Taylor to meet the difficulties he experienced in making producer gas for roasting sulphurous iron ores. It will be of interest to review briefly his description of his producer. It was built like a small blast furnace, having a hearth 24 in. in diameter and 24 in. high. The bosh angle was 25' from the vertical; the diameter at the bosh 4 ft. and at the top 3 ft.; the total height 12 ft. The producer contained one water-cooled tuyere 12 in. above the bottom, with a 1.5-in. nozzle. Depth of the coal above the tuyere, 6 ft. Mr. Taylor mixed the coal with from 30 to 40 per cent. of basic blast-furnace slag to flux the ash. Occasionally some limestone was also used, but never limestone alone, as the use of the furnace cinder gave a larger volume of slag and made it easier to maintain a proper fluidity. The producer was blown with a small Weimer blowing engine, delivering 300 ft. of air per minute, at from 1 to 1.5 lb. pressure. The slag was tapped every 2 hr. and was black and glassy in appearance. Broken or egg size anthracite was used. The fine sizes of anthracite could not be made to work. Mr. Taylor expressed the belief that bituminous coal could be used if not too fine, but no experiments were made with this coal. Runs were made of four weeks' duration, with no stops or changes. Mr. Taylor reported the following advantages: 1. Excellent gas, very uniform in quality. The high fuel bed permitted no air to pass unconsumed, and the gas was almost entirely free from carbonic acid.

Jan 1, 1914

By E. A. Calnan, B. E. Williams

IN the development of a new treatment for the prediction of deformation textures,'-' it was noted that for no metals are there experimentally determined tension textures with which the predictions may be compared. There is a considerable knowledge of drawing textures and previous workers have been content to consider these as equivalent to tension textures for the purposes of comparison. It is shown, however, in the new treatment that the tension and drawing textures are not necessarily identical, the radial compression exerted by the dies in the drawing operation producing some modification of the tension texture. In particular for the face-centered cubic metals it is predicted that for drawing the final texture should be [1ll] with a spread towards [211] (a more detailed derivation of this texture has been made by Calnan3). This has been amply confirmed by experiment, see Hibbard.6 For the pure tension case, however, the treatment predicts intermediate [1ll] and [loo] textures leading to a [211] end-point, while all previous treatments have predicted the final texture as [1ll] with in some cases an additional [loo] component. Thus evidence that the pure tension end-point is the [211], or at least that [1ll] and [l00] are not the final textures, should provide a valuable test of the new treatment. Accordingly some experiments were made on aluminum. Three aluminum specimens were examined in detail, one of cold-rolled high purity rod (99.99 pct), specimen A, and two of commercial extruded rod of purity 99.4 pct, specimens B and C. The initial annealing treatments were: A, 1½ hr at 400°C; B, 2 hr at 400°C; C, 1½ hr at 650°C. The principal difficulty is that of obtaining sufficient elongation before fracture occurs. This was overcome to some extent by giving a softening heat treatment, 1 hr at 300°C, after each 15 pct of extension. Vickers hardness measurements gave values before and after the softening treatment of about 30 and 28, respectively, in comparison with the initial value of about 19 corresponding to fully annealed material. From recent observations in this laboratory it is concluded that this small recovery corresponds to a polygonization process rather than recrystallization proper and consequently the preferred orientation is unaffected. At the higher extensions, however, some slight necking of the specimens took place and it was necessary to turn them down to a uniform cross-section before

Jan 1, 1953

By Fred McConnell

FROM beginning to end, the processes of coal stripping are of great interest. From the time the prospector enters upon the property to examine it and to prove it, until the coal is loaded into railroad cars, every step must be taken with careful thought and planning. In proving the merits of a prospective property, an examination and computation of the overburden is of almost equal importance to the determination of the extent and quality of the coal bed itself. Is the overburden hard, and will it require drilling and shooting? How many yards of it will have to be handled to produce a ton of coal? Will it remain in place when .put in the spoil bank, or will it spread and run back into the pit? Are the drainage problems serious, and what will it cost to handle the water? Does the coal have bad dips, and what will be the grades and curvatures for haulage? These are a few of the physical problems that confront the prospector, and they can be ascertained only by adequate and careful drilling and engineering of the property to be considered. The engineer is an ever-present necessity, not only in the prospecting but in the daily operation of the property after it has' been approved and developed. The first step in operation after the location of the tipple is the contouring of the surface to be stripped and the laying out of the pits for operation, having in view again adequate room for spoil, drainage, haulage and other problems. If the overburden is hard, as much of it is in the larger stripping areas, it must be drilled for shooting with churn or well drills, the holes continuing from the surface down to or near the coal bed. The location of these holes should be made, and marked with stakes, by the engineer, acting in conjunction with the shooting foreman. The usual practice is to drill holes 6 in. in diameter, although the present tendency is to increase the diameter of these holes so that they will hold, without springing, a larger charge of explosive. With the use of the old method of shooting, the holes were sprung or chambered several times with charges of dynamite, and in the cavity thus made, the explosive was placed, largely at the bottom of the hole; but with the use of liquid oxygen as an explosive, and with the later

Jan 1, 1931

By Louis A. Riley

I DESIRE to submit, for the consideration and information of the members of the Institute, the following data, drawings, and tables, showing what I believe will be interesting information with regard to the diamond drill, and its uses in developing mineral lands. I would first say that the results given have been obtained during the past two years by means of two drilling machines belonging to the Lehigh Valley Coal Company, operating on their coal lands in the Mahanoy, Lehigh, and Wyoming regions. 1st. A tabulated statement, giving location of borings, date, progress, total cost, itemized cost per foot, etc. 2d. Section showing strata bored in Nos. 5 and 10 holes at Mt. Carmel, see Plate VI. 3d. Section showing strata bored in No. 19 hole at Hazleton, see Plate VI. 4th. Photograph and description of drill No. 2. From the first it will be seen that the total number of test-holes bored up to May 1st of this year is 24; 9 of these are in the Mahanoy region, 6 in the Lehigh region, and 10 in the Wyoming region, in all of which cores have been taken for the whole distance. The total distance bored is 9902 feet. The majority of the holes have been put down for the purpose of proving the lower veins of the coal series, and have had to encounter the harder rocks of the coal formation. Much of the distance has been through the lower conglomerates, going in some cases through the coarse egg conglomerate, the foundation of the coal deposit, and to the green sandstone and red shale which underlie it. These lower sandrocks and conglomer¬ates are among the hardest known to geologists, and present a formidable resistance to the exploring drill. This fact must be taken into consideration in comparisons of cost of drilling, and when considered will still further improve the very favorable results I am able to show in my statement of costs. In illustration, I will cite the work of one bit when boring in the upper or softer rocks of the Wyoming region, where 280 feet were obtained without resetting, while in the Lehigh and Mahanoy regions, in the lower and harder rocks, bits set with the same quality of diamonds would only bore from 3 to 20 feet before being worn out. In this connection it may

Jan 1, 1877

By S. H. Davis

The pyrites used in making sulfuric acid in the United States have been largely imported from Spain and Canada, the Spanish imports amounting to nearly 1,000,000 tons per annum in the pre-war period. The greatly increased use of sulfuric acid and the cutting off of these Spanish imports, incident to war conditions, brought about a threatened shortage of sulfur supplies during the war period. The bituminous-coal mines of ccrtain districts have, for many years, furnished a small tonnage of pyrite in the form of coal brasses. A mechanical concentrator at Danville, Ill., for a number of years, has been treating hand-picked lump pyrite and coal from the picking belt and from the mines and a small plant near Gillespie, Ill., for a few months has been recovering pyrite from washery refuse. Many mines throughout Illinois, Indiana, Western Kentucky, Ohio, and Pennsylvania have shipped an occasional car of the hand-cleaned lump pyrite. Only a very small percentage of the available pyrite has been recovered in this way, however, as usually the miners throw such lumps into the gob with slate and other impurities. It has been estimated that the western Indiana coal field could furnish more than 100,000 tons of pyrite per annum. The present production is very small. The possibility of furnishing the domestic trade with pyrites recovered as a byproduct from coal-mining operations appears attractive but there are certain features difficult to overcome. Pyrite, to be used in acid making, must meet with certain requirements as to size and purity. Lump ore for grate burners should be under 3 in. (7.6 cm.) and over 1 in. (2.5 cm.) in diameter. Fines for use in mechanical roasters should be under quarter mesh. The material should be high in sulfur, free from arsenic and phosphorus, and as low in carbon as possible. The pyrite obtained from coal can be made to meet all the above requirements, but it is difficult to remove all the carbon. The pyrite in coal occurs as bands and nodules of varying thickness and size and of comparative purity, but mixed with this is more or less web sulfur. The web sulfur carries admixed coal, which may make the concentrate run up to several per cent. carbon. This makes the concentrates subject to firing, causes heavy consumption of niter, and lowers the acid-plant capacity, due to dilution of gases. The hand-cleaning methods

Jan 1, 1920

By L. G. Huntley

The entire production of Colombia for 1927 was that from the Tropical Oil Co. concession. Production was approximately 14,000,000 bbl., of which 12,081,000 bbl. were exported from the Mamonal terminal of the Andian National Corp. near Cartagena. The balance represents that refined and used or marketed within Colombia. As production in 1926 was only 6,443,540 bbl., the increase has been more than 100 per cent. This is partly due to the looping of the pipe line from the concession to the coast, and the resultant increase in capacity to 50,000 bbl. per day, and also to increased domestic sales. The refinery at Barranca has been doubled in capacity, and it is understood is now handling 5000 bbl. of crude daily. This gives the producing field a potential outlet of 55,000 bbl. daily. The Tropical Oil Co. completed 82 wells in 1927, with one abandoned for drilling difficulties. The average daily initial production was 1136 bbl. per well. The largest well is reported to be No. 173 La Cira, rated as 5000 bbl. initial. Most of the wells were drilled on the Infantas and La Cira structures, the latter located en echelon to the northwest of the main Infantas anticline, and separated from it only by a low saddle. Drilling operations on the Llanos fold, also en echelon with Infantas but to the southeast, and at San Luis, bearing about the same relationship to the Umir Hills uplift, are still more or less in the exploratory stage. The four structures mentioned cover approximately 15,000 acres, on which there are at present 223 producing wells. Drilling has been better than 92 per cent. successful since starting operations on this concession. Allowing 15 acres per well, which is 50 per cent. more than good practice in the Mid-Continent fields, there is thus room for 1000 wclls, which at the recent rate is a 10-year drilling campaign. This does not take into consideration the known deeper oil zones, which have not been prospected, but which are uniformly petroliferous at their outcrops to the eastward. It is estimated that with the enlarged pipe line capacity, as well as increased domestic consumption, the production for this country will be about 20,000,000 bbl. for the current year of 1928. It is possible that

Jan 1, 1928

By Walter Stern

THE self-potential or spontaneous polarization method is one of the oldest in the field of electrical exploration. When applied in prospecting for ore bodies, it is one of the most rapid and inexpensive means of locating indications of ore bodies at shallow depth. Usually, the procedure is to survey the equipotential lines of the electrical field that is generated by the electrochemical activity of the ore near the ground-water level, and to localize the so-called negative centers or points of greatest negative anomaly. Another field procedure involves the measurement of potential differences along potential profiles, generally laid out at right angles to the assumed strike. Again, in such survey, the basis for establishing the presence of ore is the location of negative potential anomalies. The earlier writers on the subject, notably Schlumberger1 and R. G. Wells,2 did much to clarify the fundamental electrochemical phenomena involved. Interpretation of the field data, however, remained largely qualitative. In 1925, A. Petrovsky3 analyzed the relation between the shape of the potential anomaly curve and size and depth of an ore body by assuming the subsurface body to be a polarized sphere.4 Along similar lines of approach, Edge and Laby5 considered the ore body a dipping sheet with limited extent in the direction of strike, while Poldini6 based the theory on the assumption of a dipping bar. The following study endeavors to enlarge [ ] FIG. I.-ORE BODY CONSIDERED AS DIPOLE upon these earlier investigations and attempts, on the basis of the potential distribution of a polarized bar, to indicate certain characteristics of the anomaly curve that make possible the determination of depth, size and dip of a subsurface body. THE SPONTANEOUS POLARIZATION FIELD SET UP BY AN ORE BODY If a sulphide ore body is subjected to oxidation varying in degree in its upper and lower parts according to the difference in the concentration of oxygen within the surrounding medium, an electrical potential field is set up. The form and distribution of this field will be investigated herein with special reference to its components on the earth's surface. Under the simplifying assumption that the ore body may be considered as a dipole with the point sources QI and Q2 situated at its upper and lower ends (Fig. I), the potential of the spontaneous polarization at point P is given by the following equation:

Jan 1, 1944

By John A. Shelton

One of the heaviest burdens uselessly cast by our mineral land laws upon the holder of the title conveyed by a patent from the United States is due to the provision excepting known veins from land patented as placer. In many instances the expense of defending such titles from the assaults of the owners of lode locations made upon the theory that the veins so located were known to exist at the date of the placer application for patent has exceeded many times the value of the land in question. Neither the lapse of time, however long after the issuance of the patent. nor repeated adjudications by the courts serve to quiet such titles Or to prevent them from being questioned. In the passage of laws providing for the acquisition of title to the mineral lands of the United States, Congress provided that the title to known veins should not pass from the United States by a patent based upon a placer location. As construed by the courts, the law (Sec. 2333 R.S.U.S.) provides that the applicant for a patent upon a placer claim may, if any vein of sufficient value to justify the expenditure of money in its development is known by him to exist within the boundaries thereof, include in his patent application an application for patent upon the vein as a lode claim; and failure to do so is to be deemed a conclusive declaration that the applicant makes no claim to the vein nor to an area of surface ground extending for 25 ft. (7.6 m.) on each side of its middle or center. As to such vein and such area of enclosing surface ground under the circumstances stated, the title remains in the United States notwithstanding the issuance of a patent that purports to convey the entire surface of a described area and everything beneath it, excepting only the segments of veins the apices of which lie outside of such area. Such known veins with such area of enclosing surface ground are, of course, at any time, so long as they remain unlocated, subject to location and appropriation in the same manner as other. veins upon the public domain. The history of the operation of this law in one district will serve to illustrate its effect generally throughout the mining regions of the United States. In the Butte district, the mineral that first attracted the atten-

Jan 1, 1920

By P. H. Dudley

I HAVE taken the liberty of calling the researches herein mentioned industrial, to distinguish them from those strictly scientific, where every known appliance is used to insure accuracy in determining principles. The industrial researches are made to ascertain wherein we have failed to embody, in practice, the principles which have been fully demonstrated by the more purely scientific investigations. So far the researches have been mostly confined to the conditions of combustion as used in locomotive furnaces, although we have examined, to some extent, furnaces under marine and stationary boilers. The products of complete combustion are gases, and, knowing what we should have, it is at once shown by analyzing the products whether the desired reactions are taking place. In spite of imperfect furnaces, lack of system in the arrangement of grate-bars and exhaust nozzles, the results are not altogether vitiated, because the analyses are not closer than one-tenth of one per cent., as under the present conditions it is hardly possible to collect gas exactly under the same conditions at different times. All of our industrial operations have developed in the past few years so rapidly, nearly all of them paying, that, until within the past three years, comparatively little attention has been given to their economy outside of the profession. Great corporations have not asked and considered the question in earnest, can we utilize our heat so as to produce the same effect at less cost? The applications of heat are so extensive, entering into every branch of industry, the principal power used to carry on metallurgical processes, to conduct transportation, that its economical generation becomes of universal importance; in fact, its economical generation and application is the leading industrial question of the day. It is stated by those who have given the subject much attention, that in our best steam-engines not over 10 per cent of the theoretical value of the fuel is utilized, and upon locomotives it is far less, probably not exceeding under the most favorable circumstances 5 or 6 per cent. In recent experiments made with the dynagraph, in drawing trains upon the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway from Cleveland to Erie, 95i miles, we found the force required to draw a stock train of 709 tons to be 2,498,396,320 foot-pounds, exclusive of the force to move the locomotive itself. We

Jan 1, 1876

By P. H. Dudley

I have taken the liberty of calling the researches herein mentioned industrial, to distinguish them from those strictly scientific, where every known appliance is used to insure accuracy in determining principles. The industrial researches are made to ascertain wherein we have failed to embody, in practice, the principles which have been fully demonstrated by the more purely scientific investigations. So far the researches have been mostly confined to the conditions of combustion as used in locomotive furnaces, although we have examined, to some extent, furnaces under marine and stationary boilers. The products of complete combustion are gases, and, knowing what we should have, it is at once shown by analyzing the products whether the desired reactions are taking place. In spite of imperfect furnaces, lack of system in the arrangement of grate-bars and exhaust nozzles, the results are not altogether vitiated, because the analyses are not closer than one-tenth of one per cent., as under the present conditions it is hardly possible to collect gas exactly under the same conditions at different times. All of 'our industrial operations have developed in the past few years so rapidly, nearly all of them paying, that,, until within the past three years, comparatively little attention has been given to their economy outside of the profession. Great corporations have not asked and considered the question in earnest, can we utilize our heat so as to produce the same effect at less cost? The applications of heat are so extensive, entering into every branch of industry, the principal power used to carry on metallurgical processes, to conduct transportation, that its econonlical generation becomes of universal importance; in fact, its economical generation and application is the leading industrial question of the day. It is stated by those who have given the subject much attention, that in our best steam-engines not over 10 per cent of the theoretical value of the fuel is utilized, and upon locomotives it is far less, probably not exceeding under the most favorable circumstances 5 or 6 per cent. In recent experiments made with the dynagraph, in drawing trains upon the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway from Cleveland to Erie, 941/2 miles, we found the force required to draw a stock train of 709 tons to be 2,498,396,320 footpounds, exclusive of the force to move the locomotive itself. We

By W. M. Small

Austria.—Austria produced some 430 cisterns of 10,000 kg. each of crude oil of a 0.9428 sp. gr. during 1934. Gosting II well near Zis-tersdorf was placed on the pump in August and at the end of the year was still producing about three cisterns daily. This well is owned by the Erdöl-Produktionsgesellschaft while Gösting I is owned by Raky-Danubia. Only five wells were completed in the republic during the year. These accounted for 1783.5 meters of the 2225 meters drilled. The only producer completed was Gosting 11. At the close of the year, four rigs were in operation and one rigging up. At least 8 or 10 new wells are planned in Lower Austria for 1935. The European Gas & Electric Co. put its 6-km. gas line into operation in May and has sold 12,301,550 cu. m. of gas to the Vienna City Electric Works. A 2-km. pipe line was built from Gösting II to the railway loading rack near Zistersdorf. Hungary.—No oil or gas was produced except a small amount of gas trapped from flowing artesian wells. The Government completed and abandoned a 1500-m. hole at Tisztaberek in northeastern Hungary and is drilling at 967 m. near Bogáes, 120 km. northeast of Budapest. It is unofficially reported it plans to drill two new wells in 1935. The European Gas & Electric Co. has a rig up for a test at Mihalyi in Transdanubia. Czechoslovakia.—In Gbely (Egbell) there were produced 1283 cisterns of 10,000 kg. of 0.935 sp. gr. oil and a small amount of gas used for fuel. This field is operated by the Government; 17 shallow producing wells and three dry holes were drilled, with a total of 3351 m. of hole completed. In Hodonin (Goding) there were produced approximately 1300 cisterns of 10,000 kg. each of 0.91 sp. gr. oil and a small amount of gas used for fuel. The field is operated by the Apollo, which drilled four producing wells averaging 460 m. in depth, one small gas well of 550 m., one small gas well 260, and one dry hole 230 m. Two wells were deepened a total of 80 meters. The Government is drilling below 800 m. in a wildcat test in eastern Czechoslovakia near the Rumanian frontier.

Jan 1, 1935

By E. S. Shaw

Utah continues as a very unimportant factor in oil and gas production. During the year 1933 there were no developments of noteworthy significance. There were no completions of either producers or dry holes during the year. The only commercial production in Utah has been from the five fields listed in Table 1 and mentioned briefly in the following paragraphs. Virgin Field.—Oil was first discovered in 1907 in a well drilled in sec. 13, T.41S., R.12W. Of the first 15 wells drilled, all but three were failures. In 1920 production from four wells from 550 to 600 ft. deep was about 20 bbl. per day. San Juan Field.—The majority of drilling in this area was done during the years 1908 to 1911. Probably the first commercial well in the field was that drilled in NW.$i sec. 6, T.42S1 R.l9E., in 1909. Farnham Dome.—The discovery well was drilled by the Utah Oil Refining Co. in April, 1923. A number of years later a second well was drilled by The Carbon Dioxice a mica1 Co., the present operator, which markets the gas in the manufacture of "dry ice" and allied products. The eslimated production, as indicated in Table 1, includes 500 million cubic feet estimated to have been lost while drilling the discovery well. Cisco Dome.—The discovery well was drilled by The Utah Oil Refining Co. in November, 1924. The Crystal Carbon Co. markets the gas in the manufacture of carbon black. Ashley Valley Dome.—The discovery well was drilled by the Utah Oil Refining Co. in April, 1925. The Uintah Gas Co. markets the gas in Vernal, Utah, for fuel. Woodside Structure.—In February, 1924, gas was discovered in a well drilled by Utah Oil Refining Co. in sec. 12, T.l9S., R.l3N., on the Woodside structure. This gas is reported to contain an appreciable amount of helium. It is being held as a helium reserve by the United States Government. Salt Valley Structure.—The test of the Utah Southern Oil Co. in sec. 31, T.23S., R.21E., on the Salt Valley structure has been shut down for some time at 6120 ft. This test has passed through more than 5000 ft.

Jan 1, 1934

By Charles W. Wagner

A premature explosion might be described as an explosion that, occurs before the miner expects it. Notwithstanding that it is unexpected, a premature is generally within the miner's control. A hangfire explosion is a blast that occurs after the miner expects it,, and in all instances, except where the explosives or blasting accessories are defective, hangfire explosions are within the miner's control. Causes of Premature Explosions Generally, there are seven methods of shot-firing in anthracit,e mines; namely: (1) cap and fuse with dynamite, (2) fuse with pellet powder, (3) squib with black powder or pellets, (4) exploders and delays with dynamite or black powder, (5) exploders with dynamite, (6) delay ignitors with black powder or pellets, (7) electric squibs with black powder or pellets. Cap and Fuse.—This method of firing seems to produce the greatest number of premature explosions. This is not solely because of the method, but is the result of mispractices which are possible with this method of firing. The two most common mispractices followed with cap-and-fuse blasting are the firing of multiple holes and the use of short fuse.. In the firing of multiple holes by cap and fuse, investigations have shown that in nearly every instance where the miner was injured by this method of firing he remained too long at the face lighting the several fuses, so that the first shot went off before he could reach a place of safety. Such accidents could have been avoided either by accurate judgment by the miner of the relative lengths of the fuses or by the use of electric firing. Rules exist in nearly every mine forbidding the lighting of more than one hole at a time where the cap-and-fuse method of firing is practiced. Where it is desirable to fire more than one hole at a, time, electric firing should be used. It is difficult to understand why so many premature explosions result from the use of short fuses, inasmuch as the cost of fuse is practically a negligible item in the expense of a day's work. Notwithstanding this, however, we frequently find miners using short lengths of fuse in an effort to save one or two cents per hole, or about 15 to 20 # in a day. A practice

Jan 1, 1931

I. PRESIDING OFFICER. At all business meetings of the Institute the President, or, in his absence, the First Vice-President, or, in the absence of both of them, any other Vice-President or Director, chosen by the meeting, shall preside. At all other meetings of the Institute the President, or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presidents, shall preside. If none of these be present the meeting shall elect a Chairman. II. ORDER OF BUSINESS. At each business meeting of the Institute the order of business shall be as - follows : 1. Reading of minutes-of preceding meeting. 2. Report of the President. 3. Report of the Treasurer. 4. Report of the. Secretary. 5. Election of Directors. 6. Reports of Standing Committees. 7. Reports of Special Committees. 8. Special Orders. 9. Miscellaneous business. This order of business may be changed at any meeting, by a vote of a majority of the Members and Associates present. At all sessions of the Institute, other than business meetings, the order of pro¬ceedings and the time of adjournment shall rest in the discretion of the presiding officer. III. SECRETARY OF THE INSTITUTE. The Secretary shall keep a record of the proceedings of all meetings of the Institute. He shall be custodian of the corporate seal, of the minute books, and of all legal documents belonging to the Institute. He shall have charge, on behalf of the Institute, of all correspondence except such as pertains directly to the office of the Treasurer. He shall notify all Officers and Directors and all members of committees of their election and appointment; shall issue notices of all meetings of the Board, and of the annual and other business meetings of the Institute; and shall; in calling, special meetings of the Directors, specify the objects of such meetings. He shall act as clerk at all the meetings of the Board of Directors and at all meetings of the Institute. The Secretary shall be custodian of all technical or scientific papers submitted to the Institute for its consideration, shall have general charge and supervision of the editing and proof-reading of all material published by the Institute, and of the distribution thereof, and be ex officer Chairman of the Committee on Publications. On the first day of May following the year in which each volume of Transac-

Jan 1, 1925

Discussion of the paper of E. C. HARDER, presented at the Pittsburgh meeting, October, 1914, and printed in Bulletin No. 94, October, 1914, pp. 2573 to 2586. I. C. WHITE, Morgantown, W. Va.-I have seen some of the great iron-ore deposits described in this paper. -One of these in the State of Minas Geraes appears to be an immense mountain of iron ore about 2,000 ft. in height. All over its surface from bottom to top may be seen large masses of rich iron ore, varying in weight from a few pounds to several tons, and from all that one can judge without exploitation, the quantity of available ore is certainly very large in this particular mountain. Whether it will prove a mere surface deposit or shell, like the famous Iron Mountain of Missouri, is for future exploration to determine. The question of transportation is the main factor in determining the availability for exportation of these Brazilian iron ores. There is no coal in Brazil that can be manufactured into coke without expensive previous treatment, since the best of the raw coal in the States of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catharina, and Parana, contains about 35 per cent. of ash, of which about 6 per cent. is sulphur, and coal of this composition cannot be utilized in iron smelting without purification. When I was chief of the Brazilian Coal Commission in 1904 to 1906, I had a cargo of this coal shipped to Balk, Germany, and treated in the great coal-testing plant of the Humboldt Engineering Works, located just across the Rhine from Cologne. It was found that by crushing and washing the Brazilian coal, it yielded 33 per cent. of briquetting coal, containing only 10 to 12 per cent. of ash (of which 1 per cent. was sulphur), and 42 per cent. of slack coal, with 25 per cent. of ash and low in sulphur, so that about 33 per cent. of the Brazilian coal could be converted into coke of fair quality, as shown by the following average of three analyses, using air-dried coal, of briquets made from the Barro Branco coal bed, State of Santa Catharina: Moisture 1.56 Volatile matter 31.66 Fixed carbon 56.73 Ash : 10.05 Total 100.00 Sulphur 1.34 Phosphorus 0.003 B.t.u 13,395

Jan 4, 1915